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Loch Ness Monster (roller coaster)

Coordinates: 37°14′03″N 76°38′46″W / 37.23417°N 76.64611°W / 37.23417; -76.64611
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Loch Ness Monster
Pictured is the Loch Ness Monster roller coaster's interlocking loops from a ground-level view. A train is inverted in the top interlocking loop navigating from left to right on the bright yellow track.
The interlocking vertical loops
Busch Gardens Williamsburg
LocationBusch Gardens Williamsburg
Park sectionScotland
Coordinates37°14′03″N 76°38′46″W / 37.23417°N 76.64611°W / 37.23417; -76.64611
StatusOperating
Opening dateJune 2, 1978 (1978-06-02)
CostUSD$5 million
($23.4 million in 2023 dollars[1])
General statistics
TypeSteel
ManufacturerArrow Development
DesignerRon Toomer
ModelCustom Looping Coaster
Track layoutTerrain
Lift/launch systemTwo chain lift hills
Height130 ft (40 m)
Drop114.2 ft (34.8 m)
Length3,240 ft (990 m)
Speed60 mph (97 km/h)
Inversions2
Duration2:10
Max vertical angle55°
G-force3.5
Restraint styleOver-the-shoulder
ThemeLoch Ness Monster
Loch Ness Monster at RCDB
Video

Loch Ness Monster is a steel roller coaster located at Busch Gardens Williamsburg in Williamsburg, Virginia. Manufactured by Arrow Development and designed by Ron Toomer, it was the first roller coaster in the world to feature interlocking loops. The roller coaster was opened within the park's Scottish hamlet, Heatherdowns, on June 2, 1978, and relates to the legend of the Loch Ness Monster. The roller coaster reaches a maximum height of 130 ft (40 m), with a maximum speed of 60 mph (97 km/h), and a total track length of 3,240 ft (990 m).

The Loch Ness Monster is the only remaining roller coaster in the world with interlocking loops. In addition to the interlocking loops, located over one of the park's water features, the design includes a helix tunnel, two lift hills, and a 114.2 ft (34.8 m) drop. Upon opening, the Loch Ness Monster received generally positive reviews. The park has commemorated numerous anniversaries for the Loch Ness Monster and was designated as a Coaster Landmark by American Coaster Enthusiasts.

History

[edit]

Busch Gardens: The Old Country theme park in Williamsburg, Virginia, opened in 1975 with one roller coaster, Glissade.[2][3] With the opening of the park's Oktoberfest section the next year, two roller coasters were added: Das Kätzchen, a children's coaster, and its adult counterpart, Wildkatze.[2][4][5] As part of its strategy to add an attraction every other year,[6] Anheuser-Busch announced the Loch Ness Monster on July 27, 1977. The thrill ride would be added at Williamsburg Busch Gardens in 1978 and would be the largest ride at the park upon its opening. The ride would be located in the center of the park in the Scotland-themed area and cost around $5 million. The announcement followed expansion plans for the Anheuser-Busch brewery in Williamsburg, as well as similar thrill additions being announced at other theme parks, including its sister park in Tampa, Florida.[7][8]

Permits for the roller coaster's foundations and several Anheuser-Busch projects were approved in August by the James City County.[9] In anticipation for the new additions, Busch Gardens Williamsburg would increase ticket prices in November.[10] A groundbreaking ceremony was held and construction started in December.[11][12] Supplemental construction permits were approved by the county in January 1978 for the roller coaster.[13] Construction of the roller coaster was conducted during the winter months, which slowed progress,[12] and was kept relatively hidden to build public anticipation.[14] The Loch Ness Monster was physically revealed to the press on March 2. With the roller coaster nearing completion, the opening date was announced for June. The park's general manager, John Roberts, touted the roller coaster as being the fastest and tallest, and having the steepest drop in the world. The roller coaster would also debut with interlocking loops and a tunnel.[14][15][16]

The roller coaster was topped off on April 13, 1978, with final welding, construction of the tunnel, and landscaping to be completed.[12] As part of a marketing ploy, the park searched for eight people to be the first riders to take on the Loch Ness Monster. The eight people represented to take on the roller coaster were athletes in American football, NASCAR racing, ice hockey, and stunt personnel.[17][18] The Loch Ness Monster opened to the public on June 2.[19][20] A week later on June 9, the park hosted the inaugural American Coaster Enthusiasts (ACE) convention, partially surrounding the roller coaster's opening.[21][22] The roller coaster was christened on June 19, by Alex Campbell, an individual claimed to have seen the Loch Ness Monster.[23]

Following a month of rumors in September 2023, Busch Gardens Williamsburg announced the Loch Ness Monster would undertake a renovation for the 2024 season.[24] Throughout the remainder of the 2023 season, sections of the track were replaced while a shade covering was added over the final brake run and various sections of track were repainted. The ride reopened on May 10, 2024 with new audio tracks added to the lift hills and lighting effects in the tunnel, while an all-new sighting center opened April 4-21 as a walkthrough attraction highlighting milestones and archived photographs of the attraction.[25]

Ride experience

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The train departs the station and makes a slight left turn.[26] It then makes a sharp right turnaround, passing a boat shack with an old ride vehicle, and starts its climb up the 130 ft (40 m) first lift hill.[15][27] Cresting the lift hill, the train makes a right turn, and descends 114.2 ft (34.8 m) toward the park's Rhine River at its maximum angle of 55 degrees and reaches its maximum speed of 60 mph (97 km/h).[15][28] The train climbs a large upward hill and turns left before it briefly ascends, then drops into the first of the two interlocking vertical loops. This loop is followed by a right turn and uphill ascent into the mid-course brake run, followed by a descending, spiraling tunnel.[26] Within the tunnel, the train traverses a helix, making 2.75 rotations.[15] When the train exits the tunnel, it climbs a bunny hill, hits a short brake run, and then climbs a second lift hill. Cresting the hill, the train turns right before descending into the second loop.[26] After completing the loop, the train passes by a statue of the Loch Ness Monster appearing to lunge at riders as it rises up into the final brake run, before returning to the station.[26] One cycle of the ride takes about two minutes and ten seconds to complete.[15][29]

Characteristics

[edit]

The roller coaster's namesake comes from the fabled creature of the Loch Ness Monster, appropriately situated in the Scotland area of the park.[7] The queue area of the roller coaster features items of an expedition in search of the Loch Ness Monster.[30] The tunnel portion is labeled the "Monster's Lair", where the Loch Ness Monster lives in a hollowed-out mountain.[14][16] Special effects were added for the roller coaster's tunnel in 1979, incorporating a mural of the creature with mist and lights.[30][31] The lighting effect was reintegrated with sound effects in the tunnel section during the 40th anniversary.[32]

Track

[edit]
The Loch Ness Monster is viewed from a vantage point on an elevated surface overlooking the park's lake. On the bottom left, a tent structure is viewed with a footbridge across the lake centered. The Loch Ness Monster takes up the center image with a train about to descend the first drop. The Griffon Dive Coaster is also seen in the background.
Interlocking loops of the Loch Ness Monster with Griffon and Alpengeist on the left

The Loch Ness Monster is a Custom Looping Coaster model made by Arrow Development and designed by Ron Toomer. The roller coaster is considered a terrain roller coaster as it utilizes the surrounding landscape in its elements.[29][33] The steel track is 3,240 ft (990 m) long and is colored bright yellow.[29][30] The track's highest point is approximately 130 feet (40 m) above the lake,[15][27] while the lowest point is around 5 ft (1.5 m) above the lake.[15] The maintenance workshop is beneath the ride's station.[30]

The roller coaster used 300 tons of steel in its construction. The Loch Ness Monster, compared to contemporary roller coasters, had its steel framework welded together instead of bolted.[15][30] During construction, a section of track leading from the bottom of the second loop to the brake run before the station was incorrectly formed, bending left, instead of right. Workers heated the track to physically bend it to the correct position, resulting in a sharp bump.[34]

The loops have a diameter of 30 feet (9.1 m). When the ride first opened, trains entered each loop at 43 miles per hour (69 km/h), slowing to 23 miles per hour (37 km/h) at the top of each loop.[15][28] The top of the first loop is 82 ft (25 m) high, while the top of the second loop is 57 ft (17 m) high.[15] The Loch Ness Monster was the first to feature interlocking loops on a full circuit roller coaster and the only one still in operation.[29] Two other roller coasters formerly featured interlocking loops: Lightnin' Loops at Six Flags Great Adventure and the Orient Express at Worlds of Fun.[30][34][35]

Trains

[edit]

The ride is capable of operating with three trains, though the park only owns two, with seven cars per train. Each car is arranged in two seats across in two rows allowing for a maximum capacity of twenty-eight riders per train.[29] The trains are colored green and are situated inside the track using flat-surfaced wheels. The trains originally entered the interlocking loops at the same time, but was discontinued when safety mechanisms were updated.[30][36] The roller coaster exerts a maximum of 3.5 g-forces to its riders and uses over-the-shoulder restraints.[29][37]

The Loch Ness Monster was originally designed with four trains with six cars per train. The manufacturer realized that four-train operations would result in backups throughout the ride and revised the layout to three trains with seven cars per train. The trains were initially manually braked in the station.[34] Parts of Arrow Development roller coaster Python, located at Busch Gardens Tampa and sister roller coaster to the Loch Ness Monster, were donated to the park after the former's closure. The original train set was replaced with S&S Worldwide rolling stock.[29] The Loch Ness Monster could carry 2,000 passengers per hour when it opened.[28]

Incidents and accidents

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An 11-year-old girl fell into a coma soon after riding the Loch Ness Monster on August 3, 1981, due to a pre-existing medical condition.[38] The girl recovered that September.[39]

A train carrying 25 passengers hit a downed tree on the roller coaster's track, sending five people to the hospital on June 13, 1989. The train carrying passengers was stranded on a section of track suspended 30 ft (9.1 m) above the ground, the ride's safety systems intervened to prevent a collision when an unoccupied second train stopped on the second lift hill. Rescue personnel evacuated all passengers over a two-hour period. Four individuals injured were released a day later, with a 16-year-old retained at the hospital having suffered a leg injury.[40] A subsequent $2 million lawsuit claimed a rider suffered internal injuries; the rider ultimately received $250,000.[41]

In June 1992, two riders claimed the special misting water effect at the ride's tunnel entrance was caustic and temporarily blinding, causing emotional distress. A park public relations manager testified the mist sprayed only water and had been subsequently removed, independent of the suit, for unknown reasons.[41] The lawsuit was subsequently dismissed.[a]

Reception and legacy

[edit]
The Loch Ness Monster's second lift hill and mid-course brake run is viewed in the image among green foliage and trees. The mid-course brake run is above the second lift hill in the center image. The tunnel's exterior structure can also be seen in the bottom left.
The midcourse brake run and second lift hill

Upon opening at the park, the Loch Ness Monster received generally positive reviews from critics and guests. A reporter for the Daily Press, Cindy Skove, covered guests' reaction to the roller coaster, with one group stating it was "one of the best", another stating they "only liked it 'generally'", while others excitedly cheered.[42] Skove later remarked in another article the Loch Ness Monster was simply "fun", even though she disliked roller coasters.[43] Reporter Susan Bruno of the Daily Press noted the reactions of the park's celebrity guests who were chosen to take on the roller coaster, with then-governor John N. Dalton stating he "enjoyed" the ride while George Willig thought it was "excellent" and wanted to ride it more.[44]

During the first American Coaster Enthusiasts convention, members commented favorably on the overall experience of the ride.[45][46] A writer for The State, Dan Perry, juxtaposed the first drop to the feeling of a "free fall off a 13-story building" and the sudden acceleration with fear.[47] Perry concluded his ride experience wanting to ride again after "raising [his] hands high", facing his fears.[47] Hank Burchard of The Washington Post wrote: "No coaster connoisseur will be able to hold up his head until he has ridden it. Then the problem becomes how to hold down lunch."[28] In his review, Burchard said the Loch Ness Monster was in a different league of thrill rides.[46]

After the opening of the Loch Ness Monster, Busch Gardens Williamsburg marked its earliest millionth visitor on July 22, 1978, since the park's opening in 1975.[48] The park also reported a record 30,000 visitors on July 29, prompting the park to close early.[49] By the season closure in October, the park saw a record 2.1 million visitors which was attributed to the opening of the roller coaster.[50] The Loch Ness Monster helped the Williamsburg park to reach national recognition through the 1978 season,[51] as well as compete against another Virginia amusement park, Kings Dominion.[52][53] The initial Golden Ticket Awards in 1998 placed the Loch Ness Monster as the 15th best steel roller coaster, tied with Taz's Texas Tornado at Six Flags AstroWorld.[54]

The park has commemorated several anniversaries for the Loch Ness Monster. The tenth anniversary saw 400 American Coaster Enthusiasts members celebrate the founding of ACE and the roller coaster.[55][56] The park celebrated the 15th anniversary of the roller coaster with Elvis impersonators that parachuted into the park and rode the Loch Ness Monster.[57] The roller coaster's 20th and 30th anniversaries' saw respective fundraising events for the Kiwanis Club and the Autism Society of America.[58][59] The 40th anniversary was marked by upgrades to the roller coaster and a five day commemoration.[33][60] Its popularity and historical significance as the world's first roller coaster with interlocking loops, as well as being the tallest and fastest coaster when it was built, was recognized by the American Coaster Enthusiasts organization, which designated Loch Ness Monster a Coaster Landmark on June 17, 2003.[33][61] The National Roller Coaster Museum and Archives hosted an original Arrow Development train to its collection in 2021.[62][63]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Carol Sumner vs. Busch Entertainment Corp, Dismissed (Williamsburg/James City County Circuit Court 1992).

References

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  1. ^ 1634–1699: McCusker, J. J. (1997). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States: Addenda et Corrigenda (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1700–1799: McCusker, J. J. (1992). How Much Is That in Real Money? A Historical Price Index for Use as a Deflator of Money Values in the Economy of the United States (PDF). American Antiquarian Society. 1800–present: Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Retrieved February 29, 2024.
  2. ^ a b Marden, Duane. "Busch Gardens Williamsburg (Williamsburg, Virginia, United States)". Roller Coaster DataBase. Archived from the original on August 22, 2022. Retrieved August 22, 2022.
  3. ^ Lassiter, Tom (May 17, 1975). "Busch Gardens' Old Country Dedicated". Daily Press. p. 3. Archived from the original on August 22, 2022. Retrieved August 22, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
  4. ^ "8 New Rides To Make You Laugh, Whirl, Twist, Twirl, Gasp, Soar, and Scream". Daily Press (Advertisement). May 23, 1976. p. F8. Archived from the original on August 22, 2022. Retrieved August 22, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
  5. ^ "New Festival Hall To Open Today At Busch Gardens". Daily Press. June 24, 1976. p. 76. Archived from the original on August 22, 2022. Retrieved August 22, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
  6. ^ Gabriele, Virginia (January 1, 1978). "1977 A Good Year For Tourist Industry". Daily Press. p. E-13. Archived from the original on August 22, 2022. Retrieved August 22, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
  7. ^ a b "Busch Gardens To Add Ride". Daily Press. July 28, 1977. Archived from the original on July 7, 2020. Retrieved July 6, 2020 – via Newspapers.com.
  8. ^ Deibler, Dan (July 30, 1977). "Business Notes". The Tampa Tribune. p. 5-B. Archived from the original on August 22, 2022. Retrieved August 22, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
  9. ^ "Building Permits". Daily Press. September 8, 1977. p. 67. Archived from the original on August 22, 2022. Retrieved August 22, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
  10. ^ "Busch Prices Rise Again". Daily Press. November 23, 1977. p. 22. Archived from the original on August 22, 2022. Retrieved August 22, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
  11. ^ "Where's Igor?". El Paso Times. December 11, 1978. p. 13-D. Archived from the original on August 22, 2022. Retrieved August 22, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
  12. ^ a b c Bruno, Susan (April 14, 1978). "They Climbed Monster's Spine". Daily Press. p. 51. Archived from the original on August 22, 2022. Retrieved August 22, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
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  15. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Roberts, John (1978). "Loch Ness Monster Finally Sighted" (PDF) (Press Release). Busch Gardens Williamsburg. Archived from the original (PDF) on September 23, 2015. Retrieved August 20, 2022.
  16. ^ a b Smith, Roy (March 12, 1978). "This thrill ride is monstrous". The Philadelphia Inquirer. p. 3-L. Archived from the original on August 22, 2022. Retrieved August 22, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
  17. ^ "'Mean and brave' first for Nessie". Evansville Press. May 7, 1978. p. 31. Archived from the original on August 23, 2022. Retrieved August 22, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
  18. ^ "Brave, Mean Crew To Take On Monster". Daily Press. May 17, 1978. p. 3. Archived from the original on August 23, 2022. Retrieved August 23, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
  19. ^ Bruno, Susan (June 3, 1978). "Ooh! The Monster (Gasp) Emerges". Daily Press. p. 3. Archived from the original on August 23, 2022. Retrieved August 22, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
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  23. ^ Bruno, Susan (June 20, 1978). "Nessie Spotter Christens The Old Country's Monster". Daily Press. p. 23. Archived from the original on August 23, 2022. Retrieved August 20, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
  24. ^ Wilkerson, Sian (September 6, 2023). "Busch Gardens' Loch Ness Monster will undergo restoration next year". Daily Press. Retrieved September 10, 2023.
  25. ^ Collette, Christopher (February 28, 2024). "After major restoration, Loch Ness Monster rollercoaster to reopen in May at Busch Gardens". 13News Now.
  26. ^ a b c d "Loch Ness Monster front seat on-ride 4K POV @60fps Busch Gardens Williamsburg". CoasterForce. May 24, 2019. Archived from the original on December 14, 2021. Retrieved July 5, 2019 – via YouTube.
  27. ^ a b United States Department of the Army (July 1982). Soldiers. Department of the Army. p. 39. Retrieved November 17, 2022.
  28. ^ a b c d Burchard, Hank (June 2, 1978). "A (Loch Ness) Monster of a Rollercoaster". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved November 17, 2022.
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  30. ^ a b c d e f g Stilwell, Andrew (January 27, 2018). "40 Loch Ness Monster Facts to Celebrate its 40th Anniversary!". Coaster101. Archived from the original on February 10, 2022. Retrieved September 27, 2020.
  31. ^ Bruno, Susan (April 5, 1979). "Busch Ready For Season". Daily Press. p. 62. Archived from the original on August 24, 2022. Retrieved August 24, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
  32. ^ Erik (June 2, 2018). "Lochness Monster celebrates 40 years at Busch Gardens Williamsburg with special deals and surprises". Behind The Thrills. Archived from the original on August 24, 2022. Retrieved August 24, 2022.; Erik (June 6, 2018). "40 years of Loch Ness Monster at Busch Gardens Williamsburg-Why it was so important". Behind The Thrills. Archived from the original on August 24, 2022. Retrieved August 24, 2022.
  33. ^ a b c Church, Abby (June 6, 2018). "Busch Gardens celebrates Loch Ness Monster's 40th anniversary". Daily Press. Archived from the original on September 7, 2018. Retrieved August 24, 2022.
  34. ^ a b c McKinnis, Rob. "The Loch Ness Monster Finally Sighted". Busch Gardens Williamsburg. Archived from the original on May 20, 2011. Retrieved August 20, 2022.
  35. ^ "Lightnin' Loops - Six Flags Great Adventure (Jackson, New Jersey, United States)". Roller Coaster DataBase. Archived from the original on October 24, 2021. Retrieved August 24, 2022.; "Orient Express - Worlds of Fun (Kansas City, Missouri, United States)". Roller Coaster DataBase. Archived from the original on July 14, 2022. Retrieved August 24, 2022.
  36. ^ Erik (June 5, 2013). "Celebrate 35 years of The Loch Ness Monster at Busch Gardens Williamsburg". Behind The Thrills. Archived from the original on September 25, 2021. Retrieved August 24, 2022.
  37. ^ "Loch Ness Monster train - Busch Gardens Williamsburg (Williamsburg, Virginia, United States)". Roller Coaster DataBase. Archived from the original on August 6, 2022. Retrieved August 24, 2022.
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  39. ^ "Girl, 11, Out Of Coma". Daily Press. September 12, 1981. p. 3. Archived from the original on August 23, 2022. Retrieved August 22, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.; Bruno, Susan (November 5, 1981). "Roller Coaster Nightmare: Therapy Continues After Coma". Daily Press. p. 22. Archived from the original on August 23, 2022. Retrieved August 23, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
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  41. ^ a b Duan, Mary (June 20, 1993). "Pair Sues Busch over Loch Ness "Mist"". Daily Press. Archived from the original on June 28, 2015. Retrieved July 24, 2015.
  42. ^ Skove, Cindy (June 3, 1978). "It's Wicked! It's Insane! It's Nessie!". Daily Press. p. 22. Archived from the original on August 23, 2022. Retrieved August 24, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
  43. ^ Skove, Cindy (June 3, 1978). "She Didn't Want To, But She Rode Nessie Twice". Daily Press. p. 22. Archived from the original on August 24, 2022. Retrieved August 24, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
  44. ^ Bruno, Susan (June 3, 1978). "Ooh! The Monster (Gasp) Emerges". Daily Press. p. 3. Archived from the original on August 23, 2022. Retrieved August 24, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
  45. ^ M. Andrews, Robert (June 12, 1978). "Roller coaster freaks flaunt gravity in unconventional convention". St. Petersburg Times. p. 3. Archived from the original on August 24, 2022. Retrieved August 24, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
  46. ^ a b "Loch Ness Monster has been unleashed". The Staunton Leader. July 5, 1978. p. 4. Archived from the original on August 24, 2022. Retrieved August 24, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
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  50. ^ "Busch Gardens Sets Record". Daily Press. November 1, 1978. p. 33. Archived from the original on August 24, 2022. Retrieved August 24, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
  51. ^ Bruno, Susan (January 2, 1979). "Williamsburg Area Received Much Free National Publicity". Daily Press. p. 26. Archived from the original on August 24, 2022. Retrieved August 24, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
  52. ^ "Monster Faces Mountain In Fun Park War". Daily Press. April 22, 1979. p. 1. Archived from the original on August 24, 2022. Retrieved August 24, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
  53. ^ "Amusement park race continues in Va". The Staunton Leader. May 2, 1979. p. 3. Archived from the original on August 24, 2022. Retrieved August 24, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
  54. ^ Baldwin, Tim (1998). "Amusement Today bestows Golden Ticket Awards" (PDF). Amusement Today. 2 (5): 1B–8B. Retrieved October 6, 2016.
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  57. ^ "Flying Lunacy". The Monitor. August 5, 1993. p. 2. Archived from the original on August 24, 2022. Retrieved August 24, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
  58. ^ Elias, Dora (June 7, 2001). "Smiles for sale: Partnership helps K.I.D.S. to have fun". Daily Press. p. D1. Archived from the original on August 24, 2022. Retrieved August 24, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
  59. ^ Newton, Mark (May 24, 2008). "Capturing Nessie, his special way". Daily Press. p. A3. Archived from the original on August 24, 2022. Retrieved August 24, 2022 – via Newspapers.com.
  60. ^ "'Loch Ness Monster' celebrates 40th anniversary". The Virginia Gazette. June 9, 2018. p. A5. Archived from the original on August 24, 2022. Retrieved August 24, 2022.
  61. ^ "Coaster Landmark - Loch Ness Monster". American Coaster Enthusiasts. Archived from the original on November 30, 2021. Retrieved August 24, 2022.
  62. ^ Collins, Brandon (July 7, 2021). "Coaster Enthusiasts Celebrate the Fourth Exploring History". National Roller Coaster Museum and Archives. Archived from the original on June 9, 2022. Retrieved August 24, 2022.
  63. ^ "Coaster enthusiasts celebrate the Fourth exploring history". Amusement Today. July 8, 2021. Retrieved August 26, 2022.
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