Jump to content

List of ecoregions affected by woody plant encroachment

Add links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Main article: Woody plant encroachment

This list describes woody plant encroachment specific to different ecoregions of the world. The list is further subdivided into countries. Although political boundaries usually have limited influence on the occurrence of woody plant encroachment in an ecosystem, this structure provides insight into country-specific scientific research and responses.

Ecoregions

[edit]

Northern Europe

[edit]

Scandinavia

[edit]

Woody encroachment is common in the Alpine tundra of Norway and Sweden[1][2][3] Also in the Coastal meadows of Estonia woody plant encroachment is observed, resulting from land abandonment.[4] In Denmark, dry grasslands are affected by woody encroachment.[5]

United Kingdom

[edit]

In the United Kingdom, shrub encroachment in heathlands may lead to the loss of ecosystem carbon, as carbon losses from the soil will not be offset by above-ground carbon in the additional biomass.[6]

Ireland

[edit]

In the Burren of Ireland, extensive low input farming helps to prevent further encroachment by Blackthorn and Hazel, while high density stands are actively thinned out.[5]

Eurasian Steppe

[edit]

Caragana shrubs are the primary contributor to woody encroachment in the Eurasian steppe, among others in the Black Sea-Kazakhstan steppe, the Tibetan Plateau steppe, and the Central Asian steppe.[7] Woody plant encroachment is observed in parts of Ukrainian steppe.[8]

Central Europe and European Alps

[edit]

Woody plant encroachment is common in the Alps.[9][10][11][12] Recorded expansion rates range from 0.6% to 16% per year[13] and 5.6% per decade.[14] Areas that formerly were forests require continuous maintenance to avoid woody plant encroachment. When active land cultivation ends, fallow land is the result and gradual spread of shrubs and bushes can follow. Animal species once native to Central Europe effectively countered this natural process. These include herbivores such as European bison, auerochs (extinct), red deer and feral horse. Grassland and heath are considered to require protection due to their biodiversity as well as to preserve cultural landscapes. Woody plant encroachment is therefore frequently countered with selective removal of woody biomass or through the seasonal or year-round introduction of grazing animal species, such as sheep, goats, heck cattle or horses. Woody encroachment occurs in the Alps, where structural change in agriculture leads to the abandonment of land. Alnus viridis is the most widely distributed shrub species in the sub-alpine zone and is found to severely impair species richness and beta diversity when encroaching grassland.[15] Also Bilberry is a common encroaching species in the sub-alpine belt.[16]

Woody encroachment in the alpine tundra is associated with aboveground carbon storage and a slowdown of the biogeochemical cycle.[17] 70 percent of cultivated land in the Eastern Alps are affected by woody encroachment.[18] Also in Hungary bush encroachment is linked to the abandonment of formerly cultivated land. Moderate encroachment is found to have no negative impact on biodiversity and suppression of woody plants is considered an effective restoration approach.[19]

Mediterranean Basin

[edit]

The Mediterranean region is widely reported to be affected by bush encroachment, which is often a transition into the establishment of trees in former grasslands.[20] This is found to have negative effects on biodiversity and to magnify climate and related droughts.[21] Further, it adversely affects soil organic matter.[22] At the same time encroaching shrubs are also found to have a positive effect, reversing the desertification process.[23][24] Areas experiencing woody encroachment have more extended droughts and higher usage of deep water and this is expected to increase under future climate scenarios.[25] In the Spanish Pyrenees, woody encroachment is connected to land abandonment[26] and affects around 80 percent of cultivated land.[27][28] It is increasingly observed that the cessation of land use is not the only driver of woody encroachment in the Mediterranean Basin, as the phnomenon also occurs in areas that continue to be used for agriculture.[29]

Spain

[edit]

Livestock decline and changes in grazing patterns have favoured the encroachment of various woody species in the Pyrenees.[30] The encroachment was found to have a significant impact on soil properties, but not increased soil organic carbon accumulation.[31] In the Pyrenees, mechanical uprooting of shrubs was found to be effective for the purpose of restorting a productive grass layer.[32]

In the La Rioja region in Spain, systematic shrub clearing was introduced in the 1980, aiming to enhance ecosystem services on abandoned and encorached farmland. Assessments show a positive effect on fire frequency, species diversity, soil health, soil carbon sequestration and hydrological connectivity and water resources.[33]

In the Saja-Besaya Natural Park, in the province of Cantabria, experiments were conducted with presribed fires as a grassland conservation tool.[34][35]

Italy

[edit]

Resarch in the Italian Alps and Sicily found that woody encroachment, following changes in land use, can lead to decreases in ecosystem carbon storage at wetter sites, while leading to increases at drier sites.[36]

North American grasslands

[edit]

North American grasslands have been found to be affected by woody plant encroachment.[37] Documentation of shrub encroachment caused by fire exclusion was documented as early as 1968.[38]

Canada

[edit]

Woody plant encroachment contributes to grassland loss in Western Canada, especially in Aspen parkland.[39][40] Also the creation of wetlands is associated with woody encroachment.[41] A case study of the Cypress Hills Interprovincial Park found an annual increase of shrub cover of 1% between 2011 and 2018.[42]

United States of America

[edit]

In the United States up to 330 million hectares of grassland are affected by woody encroachment.[43] Affected ecosystems include the Chihuahuan Desert, the Sonoran Desert, the northern and southern Rocky Mountains, the sagebrush steppe, as well as the Southern and Central Great Plains. Poor grazing management and fire suppression are among the documented causes.[44][45] In particular, historic livestock overgrazing has contributed to woody plant encroachment.[46][47][48][49][50] Historically, the displacement of indigenous populations and the simultaneous elimination of fire-based land management are believed to be root causes of the observed regime shift. Also the absence of previously common large browsers, especially elk, is a contributing factor.[51] The Great Plains biome is found to be at the brink of collapse due to woody encroachment, with 62% of Northern American grassland lost to date.[51][52]

Woody plant expansion is considered one of the greatest contemporary threats to mesic grasslands of the central United States.[53] Woody encroachment is estimated to lead to a loss of 75% of potential grass biomass in the Great Plains.[54] In the western United States, 25% of rangelands experience sustained tree cover expansion, with estimated losses for agricultural producers of $5 billion since 1990. The forage lost annually is estimated to be equal to the consumption of 1.5 million bison or 1.9 million cattle.[55] Woody plants have increased on around 44 million hectares in the western United States since 1999.[56] Among encroaching species is Piñon-juniper which mostly encroaches in shrubland adjacent to wooded areas. Up to 350 sagebrush-associated plant and animal species are threatened as a result. In the northern Great Basin piñon-juniper has encroached 0.45 million hectares since 2001 alone.[57] The rate at which grassland is lost to woody encroachment is found to equal the rate of conversion of grassland to agricultural land.[58] Also the tundra ecosystems of Colorado and Alaska are affected by the rapid expansion of woody shrubs.[59][60] In coastal fen ecosystems, woody plant encroachment leads to the reduction of herbaceous species richness and loss of rare species.[61]

Negative impacts on forage production and an interrelation with carbon sequestration are documented.[62] At the same time in the semiarid karst savanna of Texas, USA, woody plant encroachment has been found to improve soil infiltrability and therewith groundwater recharge.[63] At the same time a conversion of rangelands to redcedar woodland has been modeled to result in a 20-40% reduction in streamflow and therewith the amount of water available.[64][65] Woody plant encroachment has been found to prevent the effective recharge of aquifers.[66] Experiments showed positive results for increased water savings through woody plant control.[67]

Over a period of 69 years, woody encroachment in Texas has increased aboveground carbon stocks by 32%.[68]

Bird population decline as a result of woody encroachment has been identified as a critical conservation concern,[69] with bird populations found to have decreased by nearly two-thirds over the last half-century.[70]

Through government funded conservation programmes, shrubs and trees are thinned out systematically in affected ecosystems. This is found to revive habitat for birds and improve other ecosystem services.[71] There is evidence that selective thinning with post-treatment has successfully reversed the effects of conifer encroachment in studied areas.[72] At the same time study areas in Nebraska, where Juniperus virginiana encroachment was treated with fire, showed that woody cover stayed low and stable for 8–10 years after fire treatment, but rapid re-encroachment then followed.[73][74] In the Loess Canyons community driven partnerships among land owners for the purpose of coordinated prescribed fires, has shown to successfully halt and reverse woody plant encroachment, with positive effects for rangeland productivity and bird species richness.[75][76] A notable initiative is the Prairie Project, funded by the United States Department of Agriculture, aiming to render the Great Plains more resilient against woody plant encroachment through targeted fire and grazing regimes.[77] USDA conservation programs amount to close to $90 million annually in public and private funds for bush control and rangeland health.[78]

Latin American grasslands

[edit]

Argentina

[edit]
Argentina
The Espinal ecoregion in Argentina

A total of approximately 5.7 million hectares of land are affected by woody encroachment in Argentinia.[79] In the Gran Chaco intense shrub encroachment has detrimental impact on livestock economies, especially in the Formosa Province. Livestock pressure and the lack of wildfires have been main causes.[80] Woody encroachment ist also observed in the savanna ecosystems of the central Argentine Espinal[81][82][83][84] as well as the lower Argentine Monte.[85] Among the encroaching species is Geoffroea decorticans.[86] In Patagonia's drylands, successful trials of rehabilitation through mechanical shrub cutting and enhancing patch connectivity were conducted.[87]

Bolivia

[edit]

In Bolivia, different stages of woody plant encroachment threaten the habitat of the Guacano.[88]

Brazil

[edit]
Cerrad
Map of the Cerrado ecoregion in Brazil as delineated by the World Wide Fund for Nature

Wide-ranging woody encroachment is found in the Cerrado, a savannah ecosystem in central Brazil. Studies found that 19% of its area, approximately 17 million hectares, show significant woody encroachment. A 40% increase in wood cover reduced the diversity of plants by about 30%.[89]

Among the researched causes are fire suppression and land use abandonment.[90] Fire suppression is linked to Brazil's conservation policy that aims at deforestation in the Amazon, but achieves the limitation of fires also in the Cerrado.[91] This ecological change is linked to the disturbance of ecohydrological processes.[92] In some areas of the Cerrado, open grassland and wetlands has largely disappeared.[93]

A contributing factor to the loss of the natural Cerrado savanna ecosystem is the planting of monocultures, such as pine, for wood production. When pine is removed and plantations abandoned, areas turn into low-diversity forests lacking savanna species.[94] A 20-year study found that woody encroachment led to reduced species diversity and richness.[95] Also in the highland grassland of Southern Brazil, bush encroachment caused by land management changes is seen as a significant threat biodiversity, human wellbeing and cultural heritage in grassland ecosystems.[96][97]

Studies show that woody encroachment in the Cerrado has a significant impact on rodent species abundance, with positive effects for forest specialists and negative effects for grassland specialists.[98]

Research has been conducted on the effectiveness of controlled fires as a means to control woody encroachment.[99]

Nicaragua

[edit]

In Nicaragua Vachellia pennatula is known to encroach due to land intensification as well as land abandonment.[100]

Caribbean Islands

[edit]

Cuba

[edit]

The Republic of Cuba experiences woody plant encroachment, mainly by Dichrostachys cinerea (locally called marabú). Encroacher wood is actively harvested and used for charcoal production and considered for electricity production.[101][102]

Asian temperate savanna and steppe

[edit]

China

[edit]

Temperate savanna-like ecosystems in Northern China are found to be affected by shrub encroachment, linked to unsustainable grazing and climate change.[103] In Inner Mongolia, shrub encroaches steppe.[104][105] Woody plant encroachment is found to lead to the reduction of biodiversity and decreased forage quality. Rare herbaceous plants and those with lower stature are at risk of extinction.[106] In Yunnan Province in Southwest China, the loss and fragmentation of savanna due to woody encroachment is found to be larger than the loss of forests.[107] In marsh areas of the Sanjiang Plain, woody encroachment was found to significantly reduce soil moisture, organic carbon, and total nitrogen.[108][109] Shrub encroachment has led to the decline of soil quality of up to 40% in Northwest China.[110]

In the Tibetan Plateau, woody encroachment is found to be one of the main grassland disturbance factors. Among the encroaching species is Potentilla fruticose.[111]

The determination of an optimal vegetation cover of tree and shrub species in China's drylands, is a subject of research.[112]

Bhutan

The encroachment observed in the Chinese Tibetan Plateau and Himalayas, extends into Bhutan.[113][114]

India

grassland India
Grassland in India

Semi-arid Banni grasslands of western India are found to be affected by bush encroachment, with affects both species composition and behaviour of nocturnal rodents.[115]

Australian lowland woodlands

[edit]

In Australia woody encroachment is observed across all lowland grassy woodland as well as semi-arid floodplain wetlands and coastal ecosystems, with substantial implications for biodiversity conservation and ecosystem services.[116][117] A total area of about 32 million hectares of land is affected by woody encroachment in Australia. It is therewith the dominant form of land cover change in the country, affecting around 6% of its total area.[79]

Prescribed fire and adapted grazing regimes have been found to successfully reduce some encroaching species and restore grasslands.[118] While the optimal fire regime is context specific, generally late dry season burning every 4 years was found to be most effective in Australia.[119]

Eastern African grasslands

[edit]

Across Eastern Africa, including protected areas, woody encroachment has been noted as a challenge.[120] It has first been documented in the 1970s, with scientists indicating that woody encroachment is the rule rather than the exception in East Africa.[121]

Ethiopia

[edit]
Flowers of Prosopis juliflora, a common invasive species in Ethiopia and other countries

Grasslands in the Borana Zone in southern Ethiopia are found to be effected by bush encroachment, specifically by Senegalia mellifera, Vachellia reficiens, Vachellia bussei and Vachellia oerfota.[122][123][124] Woody plants constitute 50-80% of vegetation cover in encroached areas, with varying densities.[125][126] Dominating encroacher species differ significantly between different elevations.[127]

This negatively affects species richness and diversity of plant species.[128] In the Senkelle Swayne's Hartebeest Sanctuary woody encroachment the area covered by grassland declined by 9.8% while the total area covered by bushland increased by 21.4% over the past 30 years.[129]

Experiments have shown the effectiveness of bush control of different woody species by cutting and stem-burning, cutting with fire-browse combination, cutting and fire as well as cutting and browsing. Post-management techniques were effective in sustaining savanna ecology.[130] In the Bale lowlands, woody encroachment is found to have increased by 546% between 1990 and 2020, transforming grassland into bushland.[131] Woody encroachment has also been observed in protected areas, such as the Nech Sar National Park,[132] as well as community conservation areas, such as Guassa Community Conservation Area.[133] Different stages of woody encroachment were identified in the Mago National Park, mainly by Capparaceae and Grewia.[134] The government of Ehtiopia has defined the scaling up of bush encroachment rehabilitation technologies a key activity in national strategies, such as the Ethiopia National Dairy Development Strategy 2022–2031.[135] Studies identify the need for post-thinning practices, aimed at leveraging positive impact.[136]

Woody encroachment has been found to reduce herbage yield and therewith rangeland productivity.[137] Under woody encroachment, less meat and milk is produced per head of cattle, which challenges traditional pastoral diets.[138][139] The management of bush encroachment is found to stabilize rangelands and contribute to food security.[124]

Shrub encroachment in forest areas of Ethiopia, such as the Desa'a Forest, reduces carbon stocks.[140]

Also the invasive species Prosopis juliflora has expanded rapidly since it was introduced in the 1970s, with direct negative consequences on pasture availability and therewith agriculture. Prosopis is native to Central America and was introduced in an attempt to halt land degradation and provide a source of firewood and animal fodder, but has since then encroached into various ecosystems and become a main driver of degradation.[141] The Afar Region is most severely affected.

The wood of the invasive species is commonly used as household fuel in the form of firewood and charcoal.[142][143][144][145][146]

Kenya

[edit]

In Kenya, woody encroachment has been identified as a main type of land-cover change in grasslands, reducing the grazing availability for pastoralists.[147] Studied areas show an increase of woodland by 39% and a decrease of grassland by 74%, with Vachellia reficiens and Vachellia nubica as a dominant species. Observed causes include overgrazing, suppression of wildfires, the reduction of rain as well as the introduction of bush seeds through smallstock[148][149] Older studies had suggested that an increase in bush cover by 10% reduces grazing by 7%, and grazing is eliminated completely by 90% bush cover.[150] Also Euclea divinorum is a dominant encroaching species.[151] Among others, woody encroachment threatens the habitat of plains zebras.[152]

Adaptation strategies include the integration of browsers into the livestock mix, for example goats and camels.[153][154] In areas where Acacia mellifera encroaches, manual bush thinning during the late dry season combined with reseeding of native grasses and soil conservation measures, proved to be an effective restoration measure with 34% improvement in perennial grass cover.[155]

In the Baringo County of Kenya, up to 30% of grasslands have disappeared due to the invasion of Prosopis juliflora.[156][157] Clearing Prosopis juliflora to restore grasslands can increase soil organic carbon and generate value through carbon credit schemes.[158]

Tanzania

[edit]

In Tanzania woody encroachment has been studied in the savanna ecosystem of the Maswa Game Reserve, with detected shrub growth rates of up to 2.6% per annum. Vachellia drepanolobium is the dominant species.[159] Moreover, observed increases of shrubland in the Serengeti Plains are attributed to woody plant encroachment.[160] Studies indicate that intensive cattle ranching is a cause of woody encroachment, for example with Vachellia zanzibarica.[161] In Mwanga district, woody plant cover has increased significantly due to overgrazing.[162]

Uganda

[edit]

Bush encroachment in Uganda is found to have negative impacts on livestock farming. In selected study areas farm income was twice as high on farm that implemented bush control, compared to farms with high bush densities.[163][164] Woody encroachment affects the savanna adjacent to the Kagera River.[165]

West African Guinean and Sudanian savannas

[edit]
Map of the Guinean forest-savanna mosaic ecoregion

Bush encroachment is observed across several West African countries, especially in the Guinean savanna and the Sudanian savanna.

Burkina Faso

[edit]

In Burkina Faso, wood plant encroachment threatens savannas.[166] Particularly the livestock sector is negatively affected.[167] Among the methods used to control bush densities are manual bush removal and prescribed fires.[168][169][170] Fire exclusion is identified as a driver of woody encroachment.[171]

Ivory Coast

[edit]

In Ivory Coast late dry season fires were found to reduce bush encroachment in the Guinean savanna.[172][173][174][175] Fire exclusion is found to be a driver of woody encroachment.[176]

Ghana

[edit]

In Ghana, woody encroachment is linked to fire exclusion.[177]

Cameroon

[edit]

In Cameroon, among the regions affected by bush encroachment is Adamawa Region, near the Nigerian border. It has been labelled "pastoral thickets" due to the suspected relation to livestock grazing pressure.[178] Among the areas affected, is the Mbam Djerem National Park.[179]

Central African Republic

[edit]

In the 1960s pastoral land in the Central African Republic was mapped and bush encroachment attributed to livestock pressure as well as reduced fire intensity.[178]

Southern African Savanna

[edit]

Angola

[edit]

Between 1990 and 2020, open grassy vegetation declined by 62% in the Angolan miombo woodlands, and around 34% experienced significant woody encroachment.[180]

Namibia

[edit]
Dichrostachys cinerea, a common encroacher species in Namibia

Woody plant encroachment, locally called bush encroachment, is estimated to affect more than 45 million hectares of savanna and woodland in Namibia.[181][182][183] As a result, agricultural productivity in Namibia has declined by two-thirds throughout the past decades. The phenomenon affects both commercial and communal farming in Namibia, mostly the central, eastern and north-eastern regions.[184][185][186] Woody encroachment is more prevalent under intense grazing by cattle compared to intense grazing by wild herbivores.[187] Also in national parks that feature a mixed land use of cattle herding and wildlife, bush encroachment has been observed.[188] In the Bwabwata National Park, a long-term data analysis for the period 1996-2019 has revealed biodiversity losses due to woody encroachment.[189][190] Common encroacher species include Dichrostachys cinerea, which is most dominant in areas with higher precipitation.[191] As a result of woody encroachment, Namibia has the highest share of trees outside classifieds forests among all African countries.[192] The probability of continued woody encroachment increases due to climate change.[193]

The government of Namibia has recognised bush encroachment as a key challenge for the national economy and food safety. In its Fifth National Development Plan (NDP5), it stipulates that bush shall be thinned on 82.200 hectares per annum.[194] At the same time, the reduction of woody encroachment on 1.9 million hectares until 2040 is one of Namibia's primary Land Degradation Neutrality Targets under the UNCCD framework.[195] The Government of Namibia pursues a value addition strategy, promoting the sustainable use of bush biomass, which in turn is expected to finance bush harvesting operations and therefore act as an economic incentive.[196]

As a result, the encroaching bush is Increasingly seen as a valuable resource for commercial utilisation and industrialisation. A national study on the economics of land degradation in 2015, placed the aggregated potential net benefit of bush control and biomass utilisation over 25 years at N$ 48 billion (USD 3.25 billion).[197] Existing value chains include wood briquettes for household use, woodchips for thermal and electrical energy generation (currently used at Ohorongo Cement, Namibia Breweries Limited), export charcoal, biochar as soil enhancer and animal feed supplement, bush-based animal feed, flooring and decking material, wood carvings, firewood and construction material, i.e. wood composite material and fibreboards.[198][199]

Women packaging charcoal produced in Namibia from encroaching woody species

Namibia has a well-established charcoal sector, which currently comprises approximately 1,500 producers and 12,000 workers. As per national forestry regulations, charcoal can only be produced from encroaching species Voluntary certification through the Forest Stewardship Council has sharply increased in recent years, due to respective demand in many off-take countries, such as the United Kingdom, France and Germany. Due to exclusive use of encroacher bush for charcoal production, rendering the value chain free from deforestation, Namibian charcoal has been dubbed the "greenest charcoal" in an international comparison.[200] Effective April 2020 the Forest Stewardship Council introduced a national Namibian FSC standard (National Forest Stewardship Standard) that is closely aligned to the global FSC certification standard, but takes into consideration context specific parameters, such as bush encroachment.[201] In early 2020, the total land area certified under the FSC standard for the purpose of bush thinning and biomass processing was reported to amount to 1.6 million hectares.[202] In 2016, the Namibia Charcoal Association emerged as a legal entity through a restructuring process of the Namibia Charcoal Producers Association, previously attached to Namibia Agricultural Union. The Association has in 2023 be renamed to Charcoal Association of Namibia (CAoN). It is a non-profit entity and the official industry representation, currently representing an estimated two-thirds of all charcoal producers in the country.[203]

Namibia Biomass Industry Group (N-BiG) is a non-profit association under Section 21 of the Companies Act (Act 28 of 2004) of Namibia, founded in 2016. It functions as the umbrella representative body of the emerging bush-based biomass sector in the country with voluntary paid membership. The core objectives, as enlisted in the Articles of Association, include to develop market opportunities for biomass from harvested encroacher bush as well as to address industry bottlenecks, such as skills shortages and research and development needs. The De-bushing Advisory Service is a division of the association, mandated with the dissemination of knowledge on the topics of bush encroachment, bush control and biomass use. Services are provided upon inquiry and are considered a public service and therefore not charged.[204] [205]

Research in Namibia has shown that Soil Organic Carbon is a key rangeland health indicator can both be positively correlated with woody plants and with systematic shrub thinning and controlled grazing.[206]

Botswana

[edit]
Healthy savanna landscape in Botswana

Bush encroachment in Botswana has been documented from as far back as 1971.[207][208] Around 3.7 million hectares of land in Botswana is affected by bush encroachment, that is over 6% of the total land area. Encroaching species include Acacia tortilis, Acacia erubescens, Acacia mellifera, Dichrostachys cinerea, Grewia flava, and Terminalia sericea.[209] Ecological surveys found bush encroachment affecting both communal grazing areas and private farmland, with particular prevalence in semi-arid ecosystems.[210][211] Encroachment is considered a key form of land degradation, mainly because of the country's significant dependence on agricultural productivity.[212] In selected areas, charcoal production has been introduced as a measure to reduce bush densities.[213][214][207][215]

South Africa

[edit]

In South Africa bush encroachment entails the abundance of indigenous woody vegetation in grassland and savanna biomes.[216] These biomes make up 27.9% and 32.5% of the land surface area. About 7.3 million hectares are directly affected by bush encroachment, impacting rural communities socio-economically.[217][218] Common encroaching species include Vachellia karoo, Senegalia mellifera, Dichrostachys cinera, Rhus undulata and Rhigozum trichotomum.[219] Encroaching species are less diverse in high-altitude rangelands and commonly dominated by Leucosidea sericea.[220] The encroaching species Seriphium plumosum is locally referred to as "bankrupt bush" due to associated rangeland productivity losses of up to 80%.[221][222] Encroachment is associated with a significant decline in grass species richness.[223]

The South African Government addresses woody plant encroachment in the Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act of 1983, defining indicators of bush encroachment.[224] Through the public works and conservation programme Working for Water, the government of South Africa allocated approximately 100 million USD per annum for the management of native encroaching species.[225] The South African Water Research Commission has identified active rehabilitation of bush encroached areas as a priority to secure hydrological ecosystem services.[226] As part of its national Land Degradation Neutrality targets, South Africa aims to restore 633 702 hectares of land affected by woody encroachment.[227]

Land users in South Africa commonly combat woody encroachment through clear felling, burning, intensive browsing or chemical control in the form of herbicide application.[219] Woody encroachment is commonly perceived as negative by land users in affected areas.[228] Studies have found a positive effect of bush thinning on grass biomass production over short periods of time.[229] Studies on the efficacy of controlled fires to combat woody encroachment are ongoing, among others in the Kruger National Park. This research has shown that high-intensity fires may reduce woody encroachment in the short-term, but not in the mid-term.[230] The Kruger National Park is largely affected by bush encroachment, which highlights that global drivers cause encroachment also outside typical rangeland settings.[231] The presence of large wildlife like elephants is found to prevent woody encroachment at Kruger National Park, but at the same time presents a challenge for the persisistance of big trees.[232] There is evidence of woody encroachment in the Free State National Botanical Garden[233] as well as the Marakele National Park.[234] Also in communal areas, woody plant encroachment is a key catalyst of land degradation.[235]

A meta analysis of studies on the hydrological impact of woody encroachment finds that encroacher species can have a negative impact on groundwater recharge, although generally less so than alien invasive species.[236]

Research in the Kruger National park suggests that woody encroachment does not improve soil organic carbon, as the latter is predominantly grass-derived.[237]

Lesotho

[edit]

In 1998, around 16% of Lesotho's rangelands where estimated to be affected by woody encroachment, linked to grazing pressure.[238] Encroaching species include Leucosidea sericea and Chrysocoma and a negative impact of water catchment areas is suspected.[239] The government of Lesotho has funded mechanical uprooting of shrubs in order to counter woody encroachment. This intervention was found to positively impact rangeland quality, which however declines over time as land re-encroaches.[240]

Eswatini

[edit]

Studies in the Lowveld savannas of Eswatini confirm different heavy woody plant encroachment, especially by Dichrostachys cinerea, among other factors related to grazing pressure. In selected study areas the shrub encroachment increased from 2% in 1947 to 31% in 1990. In some affected areas, frequent fires, coupled with drought, reduced bush densities over time.[241][242]

Mozambique

[edit]

Gorongosa National Park experiences a significant increase of woody cover, especially in the miombo woodland, Acacia–Combretum–palm savanna, and floodplain grassland. This woody encroachment is linked to reduced browsing pressure, caused by a significant reduction of herbivores during the Mozambican Civil War.[243]

Zambia

[edit]

Woody encroachment has been recorded in southern Zambia. Between 1986 and 2010 woody cover increased from 26% to 45% in Kafue Flats and Lochinvar National Park. A common encroacher species is Dichrostachys cinerea.[244]

Zimbabwe

[edit]

There is evidence of woody plant encroachment in Zimbabwe, among others by Vachellia karroo.[245] Document notions of woody encroachment in Zimbabwe and its impact on land use date back to 1945.[246][247]

Other ecoregions

[edit]

There is evidence of woody encroachment by Acacia leata, Acacia mellifera, Acacia polyacantha, Acacia senegal and Vachellia seyal in Sudan.[248]

Reference map

[edit]

The following map displays the countries that are addressed in this article, i.e. countries that feature ecosystems with scientifically documented woody encroachment.

  • Purple – Countries with evidence of woody plant encroachment after land intensification
  • Yellow – Countries with evidence of woody plant encroachment after land abandonment

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Marsman, F.; Nystuen, K.O.; Opedal, Ø.H.; Foest, J.J.; Sørensen, M.V.; De Frenne, P.; Graae, B.J.; Limpens, J. (2020). "Determinants of tree seedling establishment in alpine tundra". Journal of Vegetation Science. 32. doi:10.1111/jvs.12948. hdl:1854/LU-8741393.
  2. ^ Rosén, Ejvind; Eddy Van der Maarel (2000). "Restoration of Alvar Vegetation on Öland, Sweden". Applied Vegetation Science. 3 (1): 65–72. Bibcode:2000AppVS...3...65R. doi:10.2307/1478919. JSTOR 1478919.
  3. ^ Hallman, Cassandra; Olsson, Ola; Tyler, Torbjörn (January 2022). "Changes in south-Swedish vegetation composition over the last 200 years as described by species-specific indicator and trait values and documented by museum and literature records". Ecological Indicators. 134: 108486. Bibcode:2022EcInd.13408486H. doi:10.1016/j.ecolind.2021.108486. S2CID 245267638.
  4. ^ Kose, Marika; Kauer, Karin; Tali, Kadri (2021). Coastal meadows : maintenance, restoration and recovery (Thesis). Eesti Maaülikool. pp. 6.999Mb. doi:10.15159/EMU.69. ISBN 9789949698837. ISSN 2382-7076.
  5. ^ a b Silva, João Pedro (2008). LIFE and Europe's grasslands : restoring a forgotten habitat. Office for Official Publications of the European Communities. ISBN 978-92-79-10159-5. OCLC 780915358.
  6. ^ Stafford, R., Chamberlain, B., Clavey, L., Gillingham, P. K., McKain, S., Morecroft, M. D., Morrison-Bell, C. and Watts, O. (Eds.) (2021). Nature-based Solutions for Climate Change in the UK: A Report by the British Ecological Society Archived 2021-12-17 at the Wayback Machine. London, UK. Available at: www.britishecologicalsociety.org/nature-based-solutions
  7. ^ Tu, Ya; Yao, Zhenyu; Guo, Jianying; Yang, Liu; Zhu, Yuanjun; Yang, Xiaohui; Shi, Zhongjie; Indree, Tuvshintogtokh (June 2024). "Predicting the potential risk of Caragana shrub encroachment in the Eurasian steppe under anthropogenic climate change". Science of the Total Environment. 944: 173925. Bibcode:2024ScTEn.94473925T. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.173925. PMID 38866162.
  8. ^ Borovyk, Dariia & Dembicz, Iwona & Dengler, Jürgen & Guarino, Riccardo & Kuzemko, Anna & Vynokurov, Denys. (2024). Plant species richness records in Ukrainian steppes. TUEXENIA. 44. in press. 10.14471/2024.44.002.
  9. ^ Tasser, Erich; Tappeiner, Ulrike (December 2002). "Impact of land use changes on mountain vegetation". Applied Vegetation Science. 5 (2): 173–184. Bibcode:2002AppVS...5..173T. doi:10.1111/j.1654-109X.2002.tb00547.x. ISSN 1402-2001.
  10. ^ Dullinger, S.; Dirnböck, T.; Grabherr, G. (2003). "Patterns of Shrub Invasion into High Mountain Grasslands of the Northern Calcareous Alps, Austria". Arctic, Antarctic, and Alpine Research. 35 (4): 434–441. doi:10.1657/1523-0430(2003)035[0434:POSIIH]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 1523-0430. JSTOR 1552344.
  11. ^ Collins, Courtney G.; Spasojevic, Marko J.; Alados, Concepción L.; Aronson, Emma L.; Benavides, Juan C.; Cannone, Nicoletta; Caviezel, Chatrina; Grau, Oriol; Guo, Hui; Kudo, Gaku; Kuhn, Nikolas J.; Müllerová, Jana; Phillips, Michala L.; Pombubpa, Nuttapon; Reverchon, Frédérique (December 2020). "Belowground impacts of alpine woody encroachment are determined by plant traits, local climate, and soil conditions". Global Change Biology. 26 (12): 7112–7127. Bibcode:2020GCBio..26.7112C. doi:10.1111/gcb.15340. ISSN 1354-1013. PMID 32902066.
  12. ^ Boscutti, Francesco; Casolo, Valentino; Beraldo, Paola; Braidot, Enrico; Zancani, Marco; Rixen, Christian (2018-04-26). "Shrub growth and plant diversity along an elevation gradient: Evidence of indirect effects of climate on alpine ecosystems". PLOS ONE. 13 (4): e0196653. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1396653B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0196653. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 5919657. PMID 29698464.
  13. ^ Treml, Václav; Wild, Jan; Chuman, Tomáš; Potůčková, Markéta (2010-01-01). "Assessing the Change in Cover of Non-Indigenous Dwarf-Pine Using Aerial Photographs, a Case Study from the Hrubý Jeseník Mts., the Sudetes". Journal of Landscape Ecology. 3 (2): 90–104. doi:10.2478/v10285-012-0029-9. ISSN 1803-2427.
  14. ^ Cannone, Nicoletta; Sgorbati, Sergio; Guglielmin, Mauro (2007). "Unexpected impacts of climate change on alpine vegetation". Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. preprint (2007): 1. doi:10.1890/060141 (inactive 2024-11-10). hdl:11383/1674311. ISSN 1540-9295.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  15. ^ Zehnder, T.; Lüscher, A.; Ritzmann, C. (2020). "Dominant shrub species are a strong predictor of plant species diversity along subalpine pasture-shrub transects". Alp Botany. 130 (2): 141–156. Bibcode:2020AlBot.130..141Z. doi:10.1007/s00035-020-00241-8. hdl:20.500.11850/443282.
  16. ^ Zeidler, Miroslav; Banaš, Marek (2024-09-02), "Bilberry Encroachment in the Changing Subalpine Belt", Plants, 13 (18): 2633, doi:10.20944/preprints202409.0041.v1, retrieved 2024-09-06
  17. ^ Urbina, Ifigenia; Grau, Oriol; Sardans, Jordi; Ninot, Josep M.; Peñuelas, Josep (2020). "Encroachment of shrubs into subalpine grasslands in the Pyrenees changes the plant-soil stoichiometry spectrum". Plant and Soil. 448 (1–2): 37–53. Bibcode:2020PlSoi.448...37U. doi:10.1007/s11104-019-04420-3. ISSN 0032-079X. S2CID 209897210.
  18. ^ Tasser, Erich; Walde, Janette; Tappeiner, Ulrike; Teutsch, Alexandra; Noggler, Werner (January 2007). "Land-use changes and natural reforestation in the Eastern Central Alps". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 118 (1–4): 115–129. Bibcode:2007AgEE..118..115T. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2006.05.004.
  19. ^ Teleki, Balázs; Sonkoly, Judit; Erdős, László; Tóthmérész, Béla; Prommer, Mátyás; Török, Péter (April 2020). Hölzel, Norbert (ed.). "High resistance of plant biodiversity to moderate native woody encroachment in loess steppe grassland fragments". Applied Vegetation Science. 23 (2): 175–184. Bibcode:2020AppVS..23..175T. doi:10.1111/avsc.12474. hdl:2437/303958. ISSN 1402-2001. S2CID 213755208.
  20. ^ Chauchard, Sandrine; Beilhe, Fabien; Denis, Nicole; Carcaillet, Christopher (March 2010). "An increase in the upper tree-limit of silver fir (Abies alba Mill.) in the Alps since the mid-20th century: A land-use change phenomenon". Forest Ecology and Management. 259 (8): 1406–1415. Bibcode:2010ForEM.259.1406C. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2010.01.009.
  21. ^ Henkin, Zalmen (2021-08-09). "The role of brush encroachment in Mediterranean ecosystems: a review". Israel Journal of Plant Sciences. 69 (1–2): 1–12. doi:10.1163/22238980-bja10039. ISSN 0792-9978. S2CID 238726811.
  22. ^ Ortiz, Carlos; Fernández-Alonso, María José; Kitzler, Barbara; Díaz-Pinés, Eugenio; Saiz, Gustavo; Rubio, Agustín; Benito, Marta (January 2022). "Variations in soil aggregation, microbial community structure and soil organic matter cycling associated to long-term afforestation and woody encroachment in a Mediterranean alpine ecotone". Geoderma. 405: 115450. Bibcode:2022Geode.405k5450O. doi:10.1016/j.geoderma.2021.115450. ISSN 0016-7061. S2CID 239131081.
  23. ^ Hongwei Zeng; Bingfang Wu; Miao Zhang; Ning Zhang; Abdelrazek Elnashar; Liang Zhu; Weiwei Zhu; Fangming Wu; Nana Yan; Wenjun Liu (2021). "Dryland ecosystem dynamic change and its drivers in Mediterranean region". Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability. 48: 59–67. Bibcode:2021COES...48...59Z. doi:10.1016/j.cosust.2020.10.013. S2CID 229411318.
  24. ^ Maestre, Fernando T.; Bowker, Matthew A.; Puche, María D.; Belén Hinojosa, M.; Martínez, Isabel; García-Palacios, Pablo; Castillo, Andrea P.; Soliveres, Santiago; Luzuriaga, Arántzazu L.; Sánchez, Ana M.; Carreira, José A. (September 2009). "Shrub encroachment can reverse desertification in semi-arid Mediterranean grasslands". Ecology Letters. 12 (9): 930–941. Bibcode:2009EcolL..12..930M. doi:10.1111/j.1461-0248.2009.01352.x. hdl:10261/342018. PMID 19638041.
  25. ^ Rolo, Victor; Moreno, Gerardo (April 2019). "Shrub encroachment and climate change increase the exposure to drought of Mediterranean wood-pastures". Science of the Total Environment. 660: 550–558. Bibcode:2019ScTEn.660..550R. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.01.029. PMID 30641382. S2CID 58609029.
  26. ^ Nadal-Romero, Estela; Rubio, Pablo; Kremyda, Vasiliki; Absalah, Samira; Cammeraat, Erik; Jansen, Boris; Lasanta, Teodoro (October 2021). "Effects of agricultural land abandonment on soil organic carbon stocks and composition of soil organic matter in the Central Spanish Pyrenees". CATENA. 205: 105441. Bibcode:2021Caten.20505441N. doi:10.1016/j.catena.2021.105441. ISSN 0341-8162. S2CID 236237751.
  27. ^ Lasanta, Teodoro; Nadal-Romero, Estela; Errea, Paz; Arnáez, José (February 2016). "The Effect of Landscape Conservation Measures in Changing Landscape Patterns: A Case Study in Mediterranean Mountains: The Effect of Landscape Conservation in Changing Landscape Patterns". Land Degradation & Development. 27 (2): 373–386. doi:10.1002/ldr.2359. hdl:10261/128642. S2CID 129137038.
  28. ^ Gelabert, P.J.; Rodrigues, M.; de la Riva, J.; Ameztegui, A.; Sebastià, M.T.; Vega-Garcia, C. (September 2021). "LandTrendr smoothed spectral profiles enhance woody encroachment monitoring". Remote Sensing of Environment. 262: 112521. Bibcode:2021RSEnv.26212521G. doi:10.1016/j.rse.2021.112521.
  29. ^ Gómez-García, Daniel; Aguirre de Juana, Ángel Javier; Sánchez, Rafael Jiménez; Manrique Magallón, Celia (2023-01-10). "Shrub encroachment in Mediterranean mountain grasslands: rate and consequences on plant diversity and forage availability". Journal of Vegetation Science. 34 (1). Bibcode:2023JVegS..34E3174G. doi:10.1111/jvs.13174. ISSN 1100-9233. S2CID 255631889.
  30. ^ García-Ruiz, José M.; Arnáez, José; Sanjuán, Yasmina; López-Moreno, Juan I.; Nadal-Romero, Estela; Beguería, Santiago (2021-03-01). "Landscape changes and land degradation in the subalpine belt of the Central Spanish Pyrenees". Journal of Arid Environments. 186: 104396. doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2020.104396. ISSN 0140-1963.
  31. ^ Nadal-Romero, E.; Otal-Laín, I.; Lasanta, T.; Sánchez-Navarrete, P.; Errea, P.; Cammeraat, E. (2018-09-15). "Woody encroachment and soil carbon stocks in subalpine areas in the Central Spanish Pyrenees". Science of the Total Environment. 636: 727–736. Bibcode:2018ScTEn.636..727N. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.04.324. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 29727840. S2CID 13678971.
  32. ^ Castillo-Garcia, Miguel; Alados, Concepción L.; Ramos, Javier; Pueyo, Yolanda (2024-01-01). "Effectiveness of two mechanical shrub removal treatments for restoring sub-alpine grasslands colonized by re-sprouting woody vegetation". Journal of Environmental Management. 349: 119450. Bibcode:2024JEnvM.34919450C. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2023.119450. ISSN 0301-4797. PMID 37897902. S2CID 264554762.
  33. ^ Lasanta, Teodoro; Cortijos-López, Melani; Errea, M. Paz; Llena, Manel; Sánchez-Navarrete, Pedro; Zabalza, Javier; Nadal-Romero, Estela (2024-01-01). "Shrub clearing and extensive livestock as a strategy for enhancing ecosystem services in degraded Mediterranean mid-mountain areas". Science of the Total Environment. 906: 167668. Bibcode:2024ScTEn.90667668L. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.167668. hdl:10261/354597. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 37820804. S2CID 263905502.
  34. ^ Fernández, Cristina; Vega, José A. (2016-01-15). "Shrub recovery after fuel reduction treatments in a gorse shrubland in northern Spain". Journal of Environmental Management. 166: 211–216. Bibcode:2016JEnvM.166..211F. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2015.10.028. ISSN 0301-4797. PMID 26513319.
  35. ^ Fontúrbel, M. T.; Fernández, C.; Vega, J. A. (2016-11-01). "Prescribed burning versus mechanical treatments as shrubland management options in NW Spain: Mid-term soil microbial response". Applied Soil Ecology. 107: 334–346. Bibcode:2016AppSE.107..334F. doi:10.1016/j.apsoil.2016.07.008. ISSN 0929-1393.
  36. ^ Alberti, G.; Leronni, V.; Piazzi, M.; Petrella, F.; Mairota, P.; Peressotti, A.; Piussi, P.; Valentini, R.; Gristina, L.; La Mantia, T.; Novara, A.; Rühl, J. (2011-12-01). "Impact of woody encroachment on soil organic carbon and nitrogen in abandoned agricultural lands along a rainfall gradient in Italy". Regional Environmental Change. 11 (4): 917–924. Bibcode:2011REnvC..11..917A. doi:10.1007/s10113-011-0229-6. ISSN 1436-378X.
  37. ^ Van Auken, O. W. (2009-07-01). "Causes and consequences of woody plant encroachment into western North American grasslands". Journal of Environmental Management. 90 (10): 2931–2942. Bibcode:2009JEnvM..90.2931V. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2009.04.023. ISSN 0301-4797.
  38. ^ McBride, Joe; Heady, Harold F. (1968). "Invasion of Grassland by Baccharis pilularis DC". Journal of Range Management. 21 (2): 106. doi:10.2307/3896366. ISSN 0022-409X. JSTOR 3896366.
  39. ^ Schutz, Marianne (2010-08-24). Woody encroachment on pastures in Western Canada (Thesis). hdl:1993/4073.
  40. ^ Encabo, Jan Bryan M.; Cordeiro, Marcos R. C.; Badreldin, Nasem; McGeough, Emma J.; Walker, David (2023-10-25). "Assessment of remotely sensed inventories for land cover classification of public grasslands in Manitoba, Canada". Grass and Forage Science. 78 (4): 590–601. Bibcode:2023GForS..78..590E. doi:10.1111/gfs.12631. ISSN 0142-5242. S2CID 264538984.
  41. ^ Dahl, Regina; Dalgaard, Tommy; Bork, Edward W. (2020-12-01). "Shrub Encroachment Following Wetland Creation in Mixedgrass Prairie Alters Grassland Vegetation and Soil". Environmental Management. 66 (6): 1120–1132. Bibcode:2020EnMan..66.1120D. doi:10.1007/s00267-020-01386-2. ISSN 1432-1009. PMID 33128111.
  42. ^ Soubry, Irini; Guo, Xulin (2024-11-07), "Earth observation for Shrub Encroachment", Egusphere: 1–28, doi:10.5194/egusphere-2024-3466, retrieved 2024-11-10
  43. ^ Knapp, Alan K.; Briggs, John M.; Collins, Scott L.; Archer, Steven R.; Bret-Harte, M. Syndonia; Ewers, Brent E.; Peters, Debra P.; Young, Donald R.; Shaver, Gaius R.; Pendall, Elise; Cleary, Meagan B. (November 2007). "Shrub encroachment in North American grasslands: shifts in growth form dominance rapidly alters control of ecosystem carbon inputs". Global Change Biology. 14 (3): 615–623. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2486.2007.01512.x. ISSN 1354-1013. S2CID 85993435.
  44. ^ IPCC, 2019: Climate Change and Land: an IPCC special report on climate change, desertification, land degradation, sustainable land management, food security, and greenhouse gas fluxes in terrestrial ecosystems, P.R. Shukla, J. Skea, E. Calvo Buendia, V. Masson-Delmotte, H.-O. Pörtner, D. C. Roberts, P. Zhai, R. Slade, S. Connors, R. van Diemen, M. Ferrat, E. Haughey, S. Luz, S. Neogi, M. Pathak, J. Petzold, J. Portugal Pereira, P. Vyas, E. Huntley, K. Kissick, M. Belkacemi, J. Malley, (eds.). In press.
  45. ^ Hamilton, W. T.; Ueckert, D. N. (2004). Brush management: past, present, future. Texas A & M University Press. pp. 3–13. ISBN 978-1-60344-628-0. OCLC 605342910.
  46. ^ Peters, D. P. C.; Pielke, R. A.; Bestelmeyer, B. T.; Allen, C. D.; Munson-McGee, S.; Havstad, K. M. (2004-10-06). "Cross-scale interactions, nonlinearities, and forecasting catastrophic events". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 101 (42): 15130–15135. Bibcode:2004PNAS..10115130P. doi:10.1073/pnas.0403822101. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 523446. PMID 15469919.
  47. ^ Browning, Dawn M.; Franklin, Janet; Archer, Steven R.; Gillan, Jeffrey K.; Guertin, D. Phillip (September 2014). "Spatial patterns of grassland–shrubland state transitions: a 74-year record on grazed and protected areas". Ecological Applications. 24 (6): 1421–1433. Bibcode:2014EcoAp..24.1421B. doi:10.1890/13-2033.1. hdl:2286/R.I.27941. ISSN 1051-0761. PMID 29160664.
  48. ^ Porensky, Lauren M.; Mueller, Kevin E.; Augustine, David J.; Derner, Justin D. (2016-03-09). "Thresholds and gradients in a semi-arid grassland: long-term grazing treatments induce slow, continuous and reversible vegetation change". Journal of Applied Ecology. 53 (4): 1013–1022. Bibcode:2016JApEc..53.1013P. doi:10.1111/1365-2664.12630. ISSN 0021-8901.
  49. ^ Pierce, Nathan A.; Archer, Steven R.; Bestelmeyer, Brandon T.; James, Darren K. (2018-08-21). "Grass-Shrub Competition in Arid Lands: An Overlooked Driver in Grassland–Shrubland State Transition?". Ecosystems. 22 (3): 619–628. Bibcode:2019Ecosy..22..619P. doi:10.1007/s10021-018-0290-9. ISSN 1432-9840. S2CID 52054984.
  50. ^ Olariu, Horia Gabriel; Wilcox, Bradford P.; Popescu, Sorin C. (2024-06-21). "Examining changes in woody vegetation cover in a human-modified temperate savanna in Central Texas between 1996 and 2022 using remote sensing". Frontiers in Forests and Global Change. 7. Bibcode:2024FrFGC...796999O. doi:10.3389/ffgc.2024.1396999. ISSN 2624-893X.
  51. ^ a b "A 'Green Glacier' of trees and shrubs is burying prairies, threatening ranchers and wildlife". KCUR - Kansas City news and NPR. 2024-04-22. Retrieved 2024-06-04.
  52. ^ "Uncertainties: global change - The loss of the North American grassland biome | U.S. Geological Survey". www.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2024-06-04.
  53. ^ Briggs, John M.; Knapp, Alan K.; Blair, John M.; Heisler, Jana L.; Hoch, Greg A.; Lett, Michelle S.; McCARRON, James K. (2005). "An Ecosystem in Transition: Causes and Consequences of the Conversion of Mesic Grassland to Shrubland". BioScience. 55 (3): 243. doi:10.1641/0006-3568(2005)055[0243:AEITCA]2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0006-3568. S2CID 85568312.
  54. ^ Fuhlendorf, Samuel D.; Archer, Steven A.; Smeins, Fred; Engle, David M.; Taylor, Charles A. (2008), "The Combined Influence of Grazing, Fire, and Herbaceous Productivity on Tree–Grass Interactions", Western North American Juniperus Communities, Ecological Studies, vol. 196, New York, NY: Springer New York, pp. 219–238, doi:10.1007/978-0-387-34003-6_12, ISBN 978-0-387-34002-9, retrieved 12 March 2021
  55. ^ Morford, Scott L.; Allred, Brady W.; Twidwell, Dirac; Jones, Matthew O.; Maestas, Jeremy D.; Naugle, David E. (2021-04-04). Biome-scale woody encroachment threatens conservation potential and sustainability of US rangelands (Report). doi:10.1101/2021.04.02.438282. S2CID 233175655.
  56. ^ Jones, Matthew O.; Naugle, David E.; Twidwell, Dirac; Uden, Daniel R.; Maestas, Jeremy D.; Allred, Brady W. (2020). "Beyond Inventories: Emergence of a New Era in Rangeland Monitoring". Rangeland Ecology & Management. 73 (5): 577–583. Bibcode:2020REcoM..73..577J. doi:10.1016/j.rama.2020.06.009. ISSN 1550-7424. S2CID 221472237.
  57. ^ "Cutting Trees Gives Sage-Grouse Populations a Boost, Scientists Find". Audubon. 2021-06-10. Retrieved 2021-11-20.
  58. ^ D. Twidwell, D. Fogarty. "A guide to reducing risk and vulnerability to woody encroachment in rangelands" (PDF). University of Nebraska-Lincoln.
  59. ^ Scharnagl, Klara; Johnson, David; Ebert-May, Diane (3 September 2019). "Shrub expansion and alpine plant community change: 40-year record from Niwot Ridge, Colorado". Plant Ecology & Diversity. 12 (5): 407–416. Bibcode:2019PlEcD..12..407S. doi:10.1080/17550874.2019.1641757. ISSN 1755-0874. S2CID 199635665.
  60. ^ Brodie, Jedediah F.; Roland, Carl A.; Stehn, Sarah E.; Smirnova, Ekaterina (May 2019). "Variability in the expansion of trees and shrubs in boreal Alaska". Ecology. 100 (5): e02660. Bibcode:2019Ecol..100E2660B. doi:10.1002/ecy.2660. ISSN 0012-9658. PMID 30770560. S2CID 73486971.
  61. ^ Saler, J. L.; Jules, E. S. (September 2021). "Woody vegetation encroachment: A driver of herbaceous species diversity loss in a coastal fen". Madroño. 68 (1): 9–19. doi:10.3120/0024-9637-68.1.9. ISSN 0024-9637. S2CID 237548265.
  62. ^ Archer, Steven R.; Andersen, Erik M.; Predick, Katharine I.; Schwinning, Susanne; Steidl, Robert J.; Woods, Steven R. (2017), Briske, David D. (ed.), "Woody Plant Encroachment: Causes and Consequences", Rangeland Systems, Springer Series on Environmental Management, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 25–84, doi:10.1007/978-3-319-46709-2_2, ISBN 978-3-319-46707-8, S2CID 133015720
  63. ^ Leite, Pedro A M; Wilcox, Bradford P; McInnes, Kevin J (2020). "Woody plant encroachment enhances soil infiltrability of a semiarid karst savanna". Environmental Research Communications. 2 (11): 115005. Bibcode:2020ERCom...2k5005L. doi:10.1088/2515-7620/abc92f.
  64. ^ Zou, Chris; Twidwell, Dirac; Bielski, Christine; Fogarty, Dillon; Mittelstet, Aaron; Starks, Patrick; Will, Rodney; Zhong, Yu; Acharya, Bharat (2018-12-01). "Impact of Eastern Redcedar Proliferation on Water Resources in the Great Plains USA—Current State of Knowledge". Water. 10 (12): 1768. doi:10.3390/w10121768. ISSN 2073-4441.
  65. ^ Kishawi, Yaser; Mittelstet, Aaron; Gilmore, Troy; Twidwell, Dirac; Tirthankar, Roy; Shrestha, Nawaraj (October 2022). "Impact of Eastern Redcedar encroachment on water resources in the Nebraska Sandhills". Science of the Total Environment. 858 (Pt 1): 159696. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.159696. PMID 36302438. S2CID 253138665.
  66. ^ Russell, Adam (2022-12-29). "Woody thickets prevent water recharge in aquifer". AgriLife Today. Retrieved 2023-07-24.
  67. ^ Mata-González, Ricardo; Abdallah, Mohamed A. B.; Ochoa, Carlos G. (2021-01-01). "Water use by mature and sapling western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis) Trees". Rangeland Ecology & Management. 74: 110–113. Bibcode:2021REcoM..74..110M. doi:10.1016/j.rama.2020.08.008. ISSN 1550-7424.
  68. ^ Asner, Gregory P.; Archer, Steve; Hughes, R. Flint; Ansley, R. James; Wessman, Carol A. (March 2003). "Net changes in regional woody vegetation cover and carbon storage in Texas Drylands, 1937–1999: Net Changes in Woody Plants and Carbon Storage". Global Change Biology. 9 (3): 316–335. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2486.2003.00594.x. S2CID 86385685.
  69. ^ Austin, J. E.; Buhl, D. A. (2021). "Breeding Bird Occurrence Across a Gradient of Graminoid- to Shrub-Dominated Fens and Fire Histories". The American Midland Naturalist. doi:10.1637/0003-0031-185.1.77 (inactive 1 November 2024). S2CID 231578939.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  70. ^ Rosenberg, Kenneth V.; Dokter, Adriaan M.; Blancher, Peter J.; Sauer, John R.; Smith, Adam C.; Smith, Paul A.; Stanton, Jessica C.; Panjabi, Arvind; Helft, Laura; Parr, Michael; Marra, Peter P. (2019-10-04). "Decline of the North American avifauna". Science. 366 (6461): 120–124. Bibcode:2019Sci...366..120R. doi:10.1126/science.aaw1313. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 31604313. S2CID 203719982.
  71. ^ Kennedy, Tony (12 March 2018). "Conservation groups make point: Sometimes trees have to go". Star Tribune. Retrieved 23 February 2021.
  72. ^ Halpern, Charles B.; Antos, Joseph A. (July 2021). "Rates, patterns, and drivers of tree reinvasion 15 years after large-scale meadow-restoration treatments". Restoration Ecology. 29 (5). Bibcode:2021ResEc..2913377H. doi:10.1111/rec.13377. ISSN 1061-2971. S2CID 233367081.
  73. ^ Fogarty, Dillon T.; de Vries, Caitlin; Bielski, Christine; Twidwell, Dirac (September 2021). "Rapid Re-encroachment by Juniperus virginiana After a Single Restoration Treatment". Rangeland Ecology & Management. 78: 112–116. Bibcode:2021REcoM..78..112F. doi:10.1016/j.rama.2021.06.002. S2CID 239699997.
  74. ^ Abella, Scott R.; Menard, Karen S.; Schetter, Timothy A.; Sprow, LaRae A.; Jaeger, John F. (December 2020). "Rapid and transient changes during 20 years of restoration management in savanna-woodland-prairie habitats threatened by woody plant encroachment". Plant Ecology. 221 (12): 1201–1217. Bibcode:2020PlEco.221.1201A. doi:10.1007/s11258-020-01075-4. ISSN 1573-5052.
  75. ^ "Back From the Brink: Restoring Prairies With Fire". Discover Magazine. Retrieved 2021-12-29.
  76. ^ "Loess Canyons Rangeland Alliance". Loess Canyons Rangeland Alliance. Retrieved 2021-12-30.
  77. ^ "Saving the Great Plains with prescribed fire, mixed grazing". AgriLife Today. 2021-09-20. Retrieved 2021-12-04.
  78. ^ "Data Dashboard Overview for EQIP". Farmers.gov. 2020-08-13. Retrieved 2021-12-16.
  79. ^ a b Bancheva, Alexandra; Grinfeldt, Yulia; Tretyachenko, Daria; Agoglia, Ofelia (2024). "Land cover changes: Regional verification of global trends with Australia and Argentina as a case study". E3S Web of Conferences. 555: 01001. Bibcode:2024E3SWC.55501001B. doi:10.1051/e3sconf/202455501001. ISSN 2267-1242.
  80. ^ Cabral, A.C.; Miguel, J.M.; Rescia, A.J.; Schmitz, M.F.; Pineda, F.D. (April 2003). "Shrub encroachment in Argentinean savannas". Journal of Vegetation Science. 14 (2): 145–152. Bibcode:2003JVegS..14..145C. doi:10.1111/j.1654-1103.2003.tb02139.x. ISSN 1100-9233.
  81. ^ Busso, Carlos A. (June 1997). "Towards an increased and sustainable production in semi-arid rangelands of central Argentina: two decades of research". Journal of Arid Environments. 36 (2): 197–210. Bibcode:1997JArEn..36..197B. doi:10.1006/jare.1996.0205.
  82. ^ Cabido, Marcelo; Zeballos, Sebastián R.; Zak, Marcelo; Carranza, María L.; Giorgis, Melisa A.; Cantero, Juan J.; Acosta, Alicia T. R. (April 2018). Paruelo, José (ed.). "Native woody vegetation in central Argentina: Classification of Chaco and Espinal forests". Applied Vegetation Science. 21 (2): 298–311. Bibcode:2018AppVS..21..298C. doi:10.1111/avsc.12369. S2CID 90614385.
  83. ^ Guida-Johnson, Bárbara; Zuleta, Gustavo A. (December 2013). "Land-use land-cover change and ecosystem loss in the Espinal ecoregion, Argentina". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 181: 31–40. Bibcode:2013AgEE..181...31G. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2013.09.002.
  84. ^ Lewis, Juan Pablo; Noetinger, Sol; Prado, Darién E.; Barberis, Ignacio M. (December 2009). "Woody vegetation structure and composition of the last relicts of Espinal vegetation in subtropical Argentina". Biodiversity and Conservation. 18 (13): 3615–3628. Bibcode:2009BiCon..18.3615L. doi:10.1007/s10531-009-9665-8. ISSN 0960-3115. S2CID 25732596.
  85. ^ Villagra, P.E.; Defossé, G.E.; del Valle, H.F.; Tabeni, S.; Rostagno, M.; Cesca, E.; Abraham, E. (February 2009). "Land use and disturbance effects on the dynamics of natural ecosystems of the Monte Desert: Implications for their management". Journal of Arid Environments. 73 (2): 202–211. Bibcode:2009JArEn..73..202V. doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2008.08.002.
  86. ^ Rauber, Ruth B.; Demaría, Manuel R.; Arroyo, Daniel; Cipriotti, Pablo A. (2020-10-05). "Characterization of the herbaceous layer in woody thickets of Geoffroea decorticans in central Pampean grasslands". Phytocoenologia. 50 (3): 297–311. doi:10.1127/phyto/2020/0357.
  87. ^ Vogel, Braian; Molina, Lucia; Rostagno, César M.; La Manna, Ludmila (September 2024). "Effects of Grazing and Shrub Management on Species Composition and Soil Properties in Patagonian Grasslands". Grasses. 3 (3): 205–220. doi:10.3390/grasses3030015. ISSN 2813-3463.
  88. ^ Cuellar-Soto, Erika; Johnson, Paul J.; Macdonald, David W.; Barrett, Glyn A.; Segundo, Jorge (2020-09-30). "Woody plant encroachment drives habitat loss for a relict population of a large mammalian herbivore in South America". Therya. 11 (3): 484–494. doi:10.12933/therya-20-1071. S2CID 224951614.
  89. ^ Greenfield, Patrick (2023-10-03). "Tree-planting schemes threaten tropical biodiversity, ecologists say". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2023-10-15.
  90. ^ Rosan, T. M.; Aragão, L. E. O. C.; Oliveras, I.; Phillips, O. L.; Malhi, Y.; Gloor, E.; Wagner, F. H. (2019). "Extensive 21st-century woody encroachment in South America's savanna". Geophysical Research Letters. 46 (12): 6594–6603. Bibcode:2019GeoRL..46.6594R. doi:10.1029/2019GL082327.
  91. ^ "Can tree campaigns curb climate change without harming grasslands?". Scienceline. 2021-05-28. Retrieved 2021-06-01.
  92. ^ Honda E. A.; Durigan G. (2016). "Woody encroachment and its consequences on hydrological processes in the savannah". Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B37120150313 (1703). doi:10.1098/rstb.2015.0313. PMC 4978871. PMID 27502378.
  93. ^ Gonçalves, Rogério Victor S.; Cardoso, João Custódio F.; Oliveira, Paulo Eugênio; Oliveira, Denis Coelho (30 March 2021). "Changes in the Cerrado vegetation structure: insights from more than three decades of ecological succession". Web Ecology. 21 (1): 55–64. doi:10.5194/we-21-55-2021. ISSN 1399-1183. S2CID 233417795.
  94. ^ Haddad, Thaís Mazzafera; Pilon, Natashi Aparecida Lima; Durigan, Giselda; Viani, Ricardo Augusto Gorne (2021). "Restoration of the Brazilian savanna after pine silviculture: Pine clearcutting is effective but not enough". Forest Ecology and Management. 491: 119158. Bibcode:2021ForEM.49119158H. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2021.119158. S2CID 233541920.
  95. ^ de Souza, Gabriella Ferreira; Ferreira, Maxmiller Cardoso; Munhoz, Cássia Beatriz Rodrigues (2022-05-25). "Decrease in species richness and diversity, and encroachment in Cerrado grasslands: a 20 years study". Applied Vegetation Science. 25 (3). doi:10.1111/avsc.12668. ISSN 1402-2001. S2CID 249114667.
  96. ^ Sühs, Rafael Barbizan; Giehl, Eduardo Luís Hettwer; Peroni, Nivaldo (December 2020). "Preventing traditional management can cause grassland loss within 30 years in southern Brazil". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 783. Bibcode:2020NatSR..10..783S. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-57564-z. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 6972928. PMID 31964935.
  97. ^ Overbeck, G; Muller, S; Fidelis, A; Pfadenhauer, J; Pillar, V; Blanco, C; Boldrini, I; Both, R; Forneck, E (11 December 2007). "Brazil's neglected biome: The South Brazilian Campos". Perspectives in Plant Ecology, Evolution and Systematics. 9 (2): 101–116. Bibcode:2007PPEES...9..101O. doi:10.1016/j.ppees.2007.07.005.
  98. ^ Furtado, Luciana O.; Felicio, Giovana Ribeiro; Lemos, Paula Rocha; Christianini, Alexander V.; Martins, Marcio; Carmignotto, Ana Paula (2021). "Winners and Losers: How Woody Encroachment Is Changing the Small Mammal Community Structure in a Neotropical Savanna". Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 9. doi:10.3389/fevo.2021.774744. ISSN 2296-701X.
  99. ^ Rodrigues, Cassy Anne; Fidelis, Alessandra (2022-11-13). "Should we burn the Cerrado? Effects of fire frequency on open savanna plant communities". Journal of Vegetation Science. 33 (6). Bibcode:2022JVegS..33E3159R. doi:10.1111/jvs.13159. ISSN 1100-9233. S2CID 253515864.
  100. ^ Ravera, F.; D. Tarrasón; E. Simelton (2011). "Envisioning adaptive strategies to change: participatory scenarios for agropastoral semiarid systems in Nicaragua". Ecology and Society. 16 (1): 20. doi:10.5751/ES-03764-160120. hdl:10535/7519.
  101. ^ "The miracle of marabú, Cuba's wonderful weed". The Economist. 2017-06-01. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 2022-03-15.
  102. ^ Alba-Reyes, Yasmani; Pérez-Gil, Maylier; Barrera, Ernesto L.; Casas-Ledón, Yannay; Arteaga-Pérez, Luis E. (2022-03-09). "Comparison of Raw and Torrefied Dichrostachys cinerea as a Fuel for Cogeneration Systems: A Life Cycle Assessment". Waste and Biomass Valorization. 13 (8): 3653–3669. Bibcode:2022WBioV..13.3653A. doi:10.1007/s12649-022-01746-5. ISSN 1877-2641. S2CID 247367222.
  103. ^ Wang, X.; Jiang, L.; Yang, X.; Shi, Z.; Yu, P. (2020). "Does Shrub Encroachment Indicate Ecosystem Degradation? A Perspective Based on the Spatial Patterns of Woody Plants in a Temperate Savanna-Like Ecosystem of Inner Mongolia, China". Forests. 11 (12): 1248. doi:10.3390/f11121248.
  104. ^ Hao, Guang; Dong, Ke; Yang, Nan; Xu, Yujuan; Ding, Xinfeng; Chen, Lei; Wang, Jinlong; Zhao, Nianxi; Gao, Yubao (December 2021). "Both fencing duration and shrub cover facilitate the restoration of shrub-encroached grasslands". CATENA. 207: 105587. Bibcode:2021Caten.20705587H. doi:10.1016/j.catena.2021.105587. ISSN 0341-8162.
  105. ^ Lv, Xiaoqing; Liu, Jianhong; Balzter, Heiko; Dong, Ziyue; Li, Jinnuo; Zhang, Wei; Guo, Yige (2024-08-01). "Rapid and extensive expansion of shrub encroachment into grassland in Xilin Gol League, China, and its driving forces". International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation. 132: 104009. doi:10.1016/j.jag.2024.104009. ISSN 1569-8432.
  106. ^ Zhang, Zhenchao; Liu, Yi-Fan; Cui, Zeng; Huang, Ze; Liu, Yu; Leite, Pedro A. M.; Zhao, Jingxue; Wu, Gao-Lin (2022-05-03). "Shrub encroachment impaired the structure and functioning of alpine meadow communities on the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau". Land Degradation & Development. 33 (14): 2454–2463. Bibcode:2022LDeDe..33.2454Z. doi:10.1002/ldr.4323. ISSN 1085-3278. S2CID 251372205.
  107. ^ Lapuz, R. Sedricke; Jaojoco, Angelica Kristina; Reyes, Sheryl Rose Cay; De Alban, Jose Don Tungol; Tomlinson, Kyle W. (2021-11-17). "Greater loss and fragmentation of savannas than forests over the last three decades in Yunnan Province, China". Environmental Research Letters. 17: 014003. doi:10.1088/1748-9326/ac3aa2. ISSN 1748-9326. S2CID 244396409.
  108. ^ Xin, S. U. N.; Ziliang, Y. I. N.; Wanjing, Zhao; Zhijun, Zhang; Qingbo, Wang; Tijiu, C. a. I.; Xiaoxin, S. U. N. (2024-04-01). "Changes in diversity of marsh plant communities under shrub encroachment in Sanjiang Plain and their soil control factors. | Yingyong Shengtai Xuebao | EBSCOhost". Ying Yong Sheng Tai Xue Bao = the Journal of Applied Ecology. 35 (4): 1016–1024. doi:10.13287/j.1001-9332.202404.001. PMID 38884236. Retrieved 2024-05-24.
  109. ^ Han, Junqing; Wu, Nan; Wu, Yuru; Zhou, Shiwei; Bi, Xiaoli (2024-07-03). "Spatial effects of shrub encroachment on wetland soil pH and salinity in the Yellow River Delta, China". Journal of Coastal Conservation. 28 (4): 60. Bibcode:2024JCC....28...60H. doi:10.1007/s11852-024-01061-2. ISSN 1874-7841.
  110. ^ Zhao, Yanan; Wang, Hongmei; Li, Zhigang; Lin, Gang; Fu, Jingying; Li, Zhili; Zhang, Zhenjie; Jiang, Dong (2024-10-10). "Anthropogenic shrub encroachment has accelerated the degradation of desert steppe soil over the past four decades". Science of the Total Environment. 946: 174487. Bibcode:2024ScTEn.94674487Z. doi:10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.174487. ISSN 0048-9697. PMID 38969107.
  111. ^ Ma, Wenming; Ding, Keyi; Bai, Song; Wang, Changting; Droma, Tenzing (2023-01-01). "Response of bacterial communities to shrub encroachment and forage planting in alpine grassland of the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau". Ecological Engineering. 186: 106837. Bibcode:2023EcEng.18606837M. doi:10.1016/j.ecoleng.2022.106837. ISSN 0925-8574. S2CID 253607802.
  112. ^ Zhang, Zhongdian; Jia, Xiaoxu; Zhu, Ping; Huang, Mingbin; Ren, Lidong; Shao, Ming’an (2024-04-18). "Estimating the optimal vegetation coverage for the dominant tree and shrub species over China's northwest drylands". Science China Earth Sciences. 67 (5): 1500–1517. Bibcode:2024ScChD..67.1500Z. doi:10.1007/s11430-023-1287-x. ISSN 1869-1897.
  113. ^ Wangchuk, Kesang; Gyaltshen, Tshering; Yonten, Thrimshing; Nirola, Harilal; Tshering, Nidup (May 2013). "Shrubland or Pasture? Restoration of Degraded Meadows in the Mountains of Bhutan". Mountain Research and Development. 33 (2): 161–169. doi:10.1659/mrd-journal-d-12-00091.1. ISSN 0276-4741. S2CID 129878744.
  114. ^ Chophyel, P. (2009). Rangeland Management in Bhutan: A Consultancy Report. Royal Government of Bhutan, Ministry of Agriculture.
  115. ^ A. Jayadevan; S. Mukherjee; A. T. Vanak (2018). "Bush encroachment influences nocturnal rodent community and behaviour in a semi-arid grassland in Gujarat, India". Journal of Arid Environments. 153: 32–38. Bibcode:2018JArEn.153...32J. doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2017.12.009. S2CID 90585116.
  116. ^ Lunt, I.; Winsemius, L.; McDonald, S.; Morgan, J.; Dehaan, R.; Bowman, D. (2010). "How widespread is woody plant encroachment in temperate Australia? Changes in woody vegetation cover in lowland woodland and coastal ecosystems in Victoria from 1989 to 2005". Journal of Biogeography. 37 (4): 722–732. Bibcode:2010JBiog..37..722L. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2009.02255.x.
  117. ^ Saintilan, N.; Bowen, S.; Maguire, O. (2021). "Resilience of trees and the vulnerability of grasslands to climate change in temperate Australian wetlands". Landscape Ecol. 36 (3): 803–814. Bibcode:2021LaEco..36..803S. doi:10.1007/s10980-020-01176-5. S2CID 231590107.
  118. ^ Noble, James C.; Walker, Paul (June 2006). "Integrated shrub management in semi-arid woodlands of eastern Australia: A systems-based decision support model". Agricultural Systems. 88 (2–3): 332–359. Bibcode:2006AgSys..88..332N. doi:10.1016/j.agsy.2005.06.018.
  119. ^ Cowley, Robyn A.; Hearnden, Mark H.; Joyce, Karen E.; Tovar-Valencia, Miguel; Cowley, Trisha M.; Pettit, Caroline L.; Dyer, Rodd M. (2014). "How hot? How often? Getting the fire frequency and timing right for optimal management of woody cover and pasture composition in northern Australian grazed tropical savannas. Kidman Springs Fire Experiment 1993–2013". The Rangeland Journal. 36 (4): 323. doi:10.1071/RJ14030. ISSN 1036-9872.
  120. ^ Prins, Herbert H. T.; van der Jeugd, Henk P. (1993). "Herbivore Population Crashes and Woodland Structure in East Africa". The Journal of Ecology. 81 (2): 305. Bibcode:1993JEcol..81..305P. doi:10.2307/2261500. ISSN 0022-0477. JSTOR 2261500.
  121. ^ Gwynne, M. D.; Pratt, D. J. (1978). Rangeland management and ecology in East Africa. Hodder and Stoughton. ISBN 0-340-19766-8. OCLC 270888555.
  122. ^ Fenetahun, Y.; Yong-dong, W.; You, Y. (2020). "Dynamics of forage and land cover changes in Teltele district of Borana rangelands, southern Ethiopia: using geospatial and field survey data". BMC Ecol. 20, 55 (1): 55. Bibcode:2020BMCE...20...55F. doi:10.1186/s12898-020-00320-8. PMC 7539436. PMID 33028276.
  123. ^ Coppock, D. L.; Gebru, G.; Mesele, S.; Desta, S. (2008). Are Drought-Related Crashes in Pastoral Cattle Herds Predictable? More Evidence of Equilibrium Dynamics from Southern Ethiopian Rangelands. XXI International Grassland Congress. S2CID 129766182.
  124. ^ a b Abdullahi, Mahammed; Birka, Abdunaser Yunus (2022-01-01). "Impacts of Bush Encroachment Control on Rangeland Vegetation in the Southeast Ethiopian Rangelands". Journal of Rangeland Science. 12 (1). ISSN 2008-9996.
  125. ^ Dalle, Gemedo; Maass, Brigitte L.; Isselstein, Johannes (June 2006). "Encroachment of woody plants and its impact on pastoral livestock production in the Borana lowlands, southern Oromia, Ethiopia". African Journal of Ecology. 44 (2): 237–246. Bibcode:2006AfJEc..44..237D. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2006.00638.x. ISSN 0141-6707.
  126. ^ Liao, Chuan; Clark, Patrick E.; DeGloria, Stephen D. (December 2018). "Bush encroachment dynamics and rangeland management implications in southern Ethiopia". Ecology and Evolution. 8 (23): 11694–11703. Bibcode:2018EcoEv...811694L. doi:10.1002/ece3.4621. ISSN 2045-7758. PMC 6303711. PMID 30598767.
  127. ^ Bora, Zinabu; Angassa, Ayana; Wang, Yongdong; Xu, Xinwen; You, Yuan (2021-06-01). "Effect of Elevation on the Density and Species Composition of Encroacher Woody Plants in Borana Rangeland, Southern Ethiopia". Environmental Management. 67 (6): 1075–1087. Bibcode:2021EnMan..67.1075B. doi:10.1007/s00267-021-01458-x. ISSN 1432-1009. PMID 33730191.
  128. ^ Haile, Mebrahtu; Birhane, Emiru; Rannestad, Meley Mekonen; Adaramola, Muyiwa S. (1 June 2021). "Expansive shrubs: Expansion factors and ecological impacts in northern Ethiopia". Journal for Nature Conservation. 61: 125996. Bibcode:2021JNatC..6125996H. doi:10.1016/j.jnc.2021.125996. ISSN 1617-1381. S2CID 233687255.
  129. ^ Kabeta, Lello; Dalle, Gemedo; Tolera, Motuma; Kelboro, Girma (2020-10-01). "Bush encroachment and impacts on grass biomass in Senkelle Swayne's Hartebeest Sanctuary, Ethiopia". Biodiversity. 21 (4): 217–226. Bibcode:2020Biodi..21..217K. doi:10.1080/14888386.2020.1844595. ISSN 1488-8386.
  130. ^ Hare, Malicha Loje; Xu, Xinwen; Wang, Yongdong; Gedda, Abule Ibro (December 2020). "The effects of bush control methods on encroaching woody plants in terms of die-off and survival in Borana rangelands, southern Ethiopia". Pastoralism. 10 (1): 16. Bibcode:2020Pasto..10...16H. doi:10.1186/s13570-020-00171-4. ISSN 2041-7136. S2CID 220881346.
  131. ^ Legese, Behailu; Balew, Abel (July 2021). "Land-use and land-cover change in the lowlands of Bale Zone, Ethiopia: its driving factors and impacts of rangeland dynamics in livestock mobility". Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 193 (7): 453. Bibcode:2021EMnAs.193..453L. doi:10.1007/s10661-021-09222-8. ISSN 0167-6369. PMID 34181091. S2CID 235656444.
  132. ^ Alemu, Molla Mekonnen (2022), "Status and Prospects of Biodiversity in Nech Sar National Park", Human Activity, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services in Protected Areas, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 51–93, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-89571-6_3, ISBN 978-3-030-89570-9, S2CID 245189444, retrieved 2021-12-18
  133. ^ Chengere, Shambel Alemu; Steger, Cara; Gebrehiwot, Kflay; Wube, Sisay; Dullo, Bikila Warkineh; Nemomissa, Sileshi (2023-08-21). "Quantifying shrub encroachment through soil seed bank analysis in the Ethiopian highlands". PLOS ONE. 18 (8): e0288804. Bibcode:2023PLoSO..1888804C. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0288804. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 10441778. PMID 37603554.
  134. ^ Gil-Romera, Graciela; Lamb, Henry F.; Turton, David; Sevilla-Callejo, Miguel; Umer, Mohammed (2010-10-01). "Long-term resilience, bush encroachment patterns and local knowledge in a Northeast African savanna". Global Environmental Change. 20th Anniversary Special Issue. 20 (4): 612–626. Bibcode:2010GEC....20..612G. doi:10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2010.04.008. ISSN 0959-3780.
  135. ^ Legese, G., Gelmesa, U., Jembere, J., Degefa, T., Bediye, S., Teka, T., Temesgen, D., Girma, Y., Berhe, A., Gemeda, L., Takele, D., Beyene, G., Belachew, G. Hailu, G. and Chemeda, S. 2023. Ethiopia National Dairy Development Strategy 2022–2031. Ministry of Agriculture, Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
  136. ^ Abate, Teshome; Abebe, Tesfaye; Treydte, Anna (2024). "Do we need post-tree thinning management? Prescribed fire and goat browsing to control woody encroacher species in an Ethiopian savanna". Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice. 14: 13039. Bibcode:2024Pasto..1413039A. doi:10.3389/past.2024.13039. ISSN 2041-7136.
  137. ^ Angassa, Ayana (2005). "The ecological impact of bush encroachment on the yield of grasses in Borana rangeland ecosystem". African Journal of Ecology. 43 (1): 14–20. Bibcode:2005AfJEc..43...14A. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.2005.00429.x. ISSN 0141-6707.
  138. ^ Megersa, Bekele; Markemann, André; Angassa, Ayana; Valle Zárate, Anne (February 2014). "The role of livestock diversification in ensuring household food security under a changing climate in Borana, Ethiopia". Food Security. 6 (1): 15–28. doi:10.1007/s12571-013-0314-4. ISSN 1876-4517. S2CID 2064196.
  139. ^ Forrest, Brigham W.; Coppock, D. Layne; Bailey, DeeVon; Ward, Ruby A. (March 2016). "Economic Analysis of Land and Livestock Management Interventions to Improve Resilience of a Pastoral Community in Southern Ethiopia". Journal of African Economies. 25 (2): 233–266. doi:10.1093/jae/ejv021. ISSN 0963-8024.
  140. ^ Haile, Mebrahtu; Birhane, Emiru; Mekonen Rannestad, Meley; S. Adaramola, Muyiwa (2021-05-29). Hasanagas, Nikolaos D. (ed.). "Carbon Stock and Soil Characteristics under Expansive Shrubs in the Dry Afromontane Forest in Northern Ethiopia". International Journal of Forestry Research. 2021: 1–10. doi:10.1155/2021/6647443. ISSN 1687-9376.
  141. ^ Schwartzstein, Peter (9 April 2019). "An invasive, thorny mesquite tree is taking over Africa—can it be stopped?". National Geographic. Retrieved 23 February 2021.
  142. ^ Ilukor, John; Rettberg, Simone; Treydte, Anna; Birner, Regina (2016). "To eradicate or not to eradicate? Recommendations on Prosopis juliflora management in Afar, Ethiopia, from an interdisciplinary perspective". Pastoralism. 6 (1): 14. Bibcode:2016Pasto...6...14I. doi:10.1186/s13570-016-0061-1. ISSN 2041-7136. S2CID 56094169.
  143. ^ Mehari, Zeraye H. (2015). "The invasion of Prosopis juliflora and Afar pastoral livelihoods in the Middle Awash area of Ethiopia". Ecological Processes. 4 (1): 13. Bibcode:2015EcoPr...4...13M. doi:10.1186/s13717-015-0039-8. ISSN 2192-1709. S2CID 53124626.
  144. ^ Tilahun, Minyahel; Angassa, Ayana; Abebe, Aster; Mengistu, Alemayehu (2016). "Perception and attitude of pastoralists on the use and conservation of rangeland resources in Afar Region, Ethiopia". Ecological Processes. 5 (1): 18. Bibcode:2016EcoPr...5...18T. doi:10.1186/s13717-016-0062-4. ISSN 2192-1709. S2CID 54845709.
  145. ^ Bekele, Ketema; Haji, Jema; Legesse, Belaineh; Shiferaw, Hailu; Schaffner, Urs (2018). "Impacts of woody invasive alien plant species on rural livelihood: Generalized propensity score evidence from Prosopis spp. invasion in Afar Region in Ethiopia". Pastoralism. 8 (1): 28. Bibcode:2018Pasto...8...28B. doi:10.1186/s13570-018-0124-6. ISSN 2041-7136. S2CID 53600422.
  146. ^ Haile, Mebrahtu; Semere, Hagos; Birhane, Emiru; Abraha, Zenebe; Rannestad, Meley Mekonen; Adaramola, Muyiwa S. (2023-09-01). "Distribution of expansive shrubs under climate change scenarios and their socio-economic impacts in a dry Afromontane Forest". Trees, Forests and People. 13: 100414. Bibcode:2023TFP....1300414H. doi:10.1016/j.tfp.2023.100414. ISSN 2666-7193. S2CID 259873451.
  147. ^ Becker, Mathias; Alvarez, Miguel; Heller, Gereon; Leparmarai, Paul; Maina, Damaris; Malombe, Itambo; Bollig, Michael; Vehrs, Hauke (2 January 2016). "Land-use changes and the invasion dynamics of shrubs in Baringo". Journal of Eastern African Studies. 10 (1): 111–129. doi:10.1080/17531055.2016.1138664. ISSN 1753-1055. S2CID 147128387.
  148. ^ Petersen, Maike; Bergmann, Christoph; Roden, Paul; Nüsser, Marcus (6 April 2021). "Contextualizing land-use and land-cover change with local knowledge: a case study from Pokot Central, Kenya". Land Degradation & Development. 32 (10): 2992–3007. Bibcode:2021LDeDe..32.2992P. doi:10.1002/ldr.3961. ISSN 1085-3278. S2CID 233558265.
  149. ^ Kibet, Staline; Nyangito, Moses; MacOpiyo, Laban; Kenfack, David (July 2021). "Savanna woody plants responses to mammalian herbivory and implications for management of livestock–wildlife landscape". Ecological Solutions and Evidence. 2 (3). Bibcode:2021EcoSE...2E2083K. doi:10.1002/2688-8319.12083. ISSN 2688-8319. S2CID 237743041.
  150. ^ Wijngaarden, Willem van (1985). Elephants, trees, grass, grazers : relationships between climate, soils, vegetation, and large herbivores in a semi-arid savanna ecosystem (Tsavo, Kenya). [Enschede, Netherlands]: International Institute for Aerospace Survey and Earth Sciences. ISBN 90-6164-048-2. OCLC 14337257.
  151. ^ Wahungu, Geoffrey M.; Gichohi, Nathan W.; Onyango, Irene A.; Mureu, Lucy K.; Kamaru, Douglas; Mutisya, Samuel; Mulama, Martin; Makau, Joseph K.; Kimuyu, Duncan M. (March 2013). "Encroachment of open grasslands and Acacia drepanolobium Harms ex B.Y.Sjöstedt habitats by Euclea divinorum Hiern in Ol Pejeta Conservancy, Kenya". African Journal of Ecology. 51 (1): 130–138. Bibcode:2013AfJEc..51..130W. doi:10.1111/aje.12017.
  152. ^ Chen, Anping; Reperant, Leslie; Fischhoff, Ilya R.; Rubenstein, Daniel I. (2021-07-01). "Increased vigilance of plains zebras (Equus quagga) in response to more bush coverage in a Kenyan savanna". Climate Change Ecology. 1: 100001. Bibcode:2021CCEco...100001C. doi:10.1016/j.ecochg.2021.100001. ISSN 2666-9005.
  153. ^ Kagunyu, Anastasia W; Wanjohi, Joseph (December 2014). "Camel rearing replacing cattle production among the Borana community in Isiolo County of Northern Kenya, as climate variability bites". Pastoralism. 4 (1): 13. Bibcode:2014Pasto...4...13K. doi:10.1186/s13570-014-0013-6. ISSN 2041-7136. S2CID 54071088.
  154. ^ Vehrs, Hauke-Peter (2 January 2016). "Changes in landscape vegetation, forage plant composition and herding structure in the pastoralist livelihoods of East Pokot, Kenya". Journal of Eastern African Studies. 10 (1): 88–110. doi:10.1080/17531055.2015.1134401. ISSN 1753-1055. S2CID 147067911.
  155. ^ Kimiti, David W.; Ganguli, Amy C.; Herrick, Jeffrey E.; Bailey, Derek W. (June 2020). "Evaluation of Restoration Success to Inform Future Restoration Efforts in Acacia reficiens Invaded Rangelands in Northern Kenya". Ecological Restoration. 38 (2): 105–113. doi:10.3368/er.38.2.105. ISSN 1543-4060. S2CID 219223577.
  156. ^ Mbaabu, Purity Rima; Olago, Daniel; Gichaba, Maina; Eckert, Sandra; Eschen, René; Oriaso, Silas; Choge, Simon Kosgei; Linders, Theo Edmund Werner; Schaffner, Urs (December 2020). "Restoration of degraded grasslands, but not invasion by Prosopis juliflora, avoids trade-offs between climate change mitigation and other ecosystem services". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 20391. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-77126-7. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 7686326. PMID 33235254.
  157. ^ Mbaabu, Purity Rima; Ng, Wai-Tim; Schaffner, Urs; Gichaba, Maina; Olago, Daniel; Choge, Simon; Oriaso, Silas; Eckert, Sandra (22 May 2019). "Spatial Evolution of Prosopis Invasion and its Effects on LULC and Livelihoods in Baringo, Kenya". Remote Sensing. 11 (10): 1217. Bibcode:2019RemS...11.1217M. doi:10.3390/rs11101217. ISSN 2072-4292.
  158. ^ Eschen, René; Bekele, Ketema; Mbaabu, Purity Rima; Kilawe, Charles Joseph; Eckert, Sandra (28 March 2021). Zenni, Rafael (ed.). "Prosopis juliflora management and grassland restoration in Baringo County, Kenya: Opportunities for soil carbon sequestration and local livelihoods". Journal of Applied Ecology. 58 (6): 1365–2664.13854. Bibcode:2021JApEc..58.1302E. doi:10.1111/1365-2664.13854. ISSN 0021-8901. S2CID 233683243.
  159. ^ Kimaro, Houssein Samwel; Treydte, Anna C. (13 May 2021). "Rainfall, fire and large-mammal-induced drivers of Vachellia drepanolobium establishment: Implications for woody plant encroachment in Maswa, Tanzania". African Journal of Ecology. 59 (4): 934–943. Bibcode:2021AfJEc..59..934K. doi:10.1111/aje.12881. ISSN 0141-6707. S2CID 236570118.
  160. ^ Borges, Joana; Higginbottom, Thomas P.; Cain, Bradley; Gadiye, Donatus E.; Kisingo, Alex; Jones, Martin; Symeonakis, Elias (2022-06-15). Disney, Mat; Levick, Shaun (eds.). "Landsat time series reveal forest loss and woody encroachment in the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tanzania". Remote Sensing in Ecology and Conservation. 8 (6): 808–826. Bibcode:2022RSEC....8..808B. doi:10.1002/rse2.277. ISSN 2056-3485. S2CID 249716797.
  161. ^ Edwards, Peter; Cech, Patrick; Sitters, Judith; Olde Venterink, Harry (2022-09-01). "Long-Term Effects of Cattle Ranching on Soil Nitrogen and Phosphorus Balances in a Savanna Ecosystem". Rangeland Ecology & Management. 84: 54–62. Bibcode:2022REcoM..84...54E. doi:10.1016/j.rama.2022.05.006. hdl:20.500.11850/557735. ISSN 1550-7424. S2CID 249860534.
  162. ^ Maleko, David D.; Msangi, Ombeni J.; Mayani, Jonas D.; Ruvuga, Peter R.; Mtengeti, Ephraim J. (2024-12-01). "Dynamics in bush cover, local uses of encroaching woody plants and their preferences by foraging livestock in semi-arid rangeland in northern Tanzania". Environmental Development. 52: 101060. doi:10.1016/j.envdev.2024.101060. ISSN 2211-4645.
  163. ^ Mugasi, S. K.; Sabiiti, E. N.; Tayebwa, B. M. (1 March 2000). "The economic implications of bush encroachment on livestock farming in rangelands of Uganda". African Journal of Range & Forage Science. 17 (1–3): 64–69. Bibcode:2000AJRFS..17...64M. doi:10.2989/10220110009485741. ISSN 1022-0119. S2CID 85259906.
  164. ^ Egeru, Anthony; Wasonga, Oliver; Kyagulanyi, Joseph; Majaliwa, GJ; MacOpiyo, Laban; Mburu, John (2014). "Spatio-temporal dynamics of forage and land cover changes in Karamoja sub-region, Uganda". Pastoralism: Research, Policy and Practice. 4 (1): 6. Bibcode:2014Pasto...4....6E. doi:10.1186/2041-7136-4-6. ISSN 2041-7136. S2CID 52203524.
  165. ^ "Thicket clumps: A Characteristic feature of the Kagera Savanna Landscape, East Africa". Journal of Vegetation Science: 31–44. 2008-02-01. doi:10.3170/2008-8-18315 (inactive 2024-11-10). ISSN 1100-9233.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  166. ^ Kampmann, Dorothea; Konaté, Souleymane (2010). Atlas de la biodiversité de l'Afrique de l'Ouest = Biodiversity atlas of West Africa. 3 Côte d'Ivoire (in French). Berlin: Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung. ISBN 978-3-9813933-2-3. OCLC 839839850.
  167. ^ Graw, Valerie; Oldenburg, Carsten; Dubovyk, Olena (2016). "Bush Encroachment Mapping for Africa: Multi-Scale Analysis with Remote Sensing and GIS". SSRN Electronic Journal. doi:10.2139/ssrn.2807811. hdl:10419/149603. ISSN 1556-5068.
  168. ^ Zida, Didier; Sawadogo, Louis; Tigabu, Mulualem; Tiveau, Daniel; Odén, Per Christer (2007-05-15). "Dynamics of sapling population in savanna woodlands of Burkina Faso subjected to grazing, early fire and selective tree cutting for a decade". Forest Ecology and Management. 243 (1): 102–115. Bibcode:2007ForEM.243..102Z. doi:10.1016/j.foreco.2007.02.013. ISSN 0378-1127.
  169. ^ Sawadogo, Louis; Nygard, Robert; Pallo, Francois (March 2002). "Effects of livestock and prescribed fire on coppice growth after selective cutting of Sudanian savannah in Burkina Faso". Annals of Forest Science. 59 (2): 185–195. Bibcode:2002AnFSc..59..185S. doi:10.1051/forest:2002005. ISSN 1286-4560.
  170. ^ Sawadogo, Louis; Tiveau, Daniel; Nygård, Robert (January 2005). "Influence of selective tree cutting, livestock and prescribed fire on herbaceous biomass in the savannah woodlands of Burkina Faso, West Africa". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 105 (1–2): 335–345. Bibcode:2005AgEE..105..335S. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2004.02.004. ISSN 0167-8809.
  171. ^ Menaut, J. C. 1977. Evolution of plots protected from fire since 13 years in a Guinea savanna of Ivory Coast. Actas IV Simposium Internacional Ecología Tropical, Impresora Nación, LNAC, Panama, 541–481.
  172. ^ N'Dri, Aya Brigitte; Kpré, Aka Jean-Noel; Kpangba, Koffi Prosper; Soro, Tionhonkélé Drissa; Kouassi, Koffi Vincent; Koffi, Kouamé Fulgence; Kouamé, Yao Anicet Gervais; Koffi, Ahou Blandine; Konan, Louis N'Guessan (2021), "Experimental Study of Fire Behavior in Annually Burned Humid Savanna of West Africa in the Context of Bush Encroachment", Sustainable Development in Africa, World Sustainability Series, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 491–505, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-74693-3_27, ISBN 978-3-030-74692-6, S2CID 238005679, retrieved 2021-07-14
  173. ^ "Developing a strategic approach to fire information sourcing and use in northern Côte d'Ivoire". Tropenbos International. doi:10.55515/rzqq3055. Retrieved 2022-11-15.
  174. ^ Koffi, Kouamé Fulgence; N'Dri, Aya Brigitte; Srikanthasamy, Tharaniya; Lata, Jean-Christophe; Konaté, Souleymane; Konan, Marcel; Barot, Sébastien (2022-11-16). "The Demographic Response of Grass Species to Fire Treatments in a Guinean Savanna". Fire. 5 (6): 193. doi:10.3390/fire5060193. ISSN 2571-6255.
  175. ^ N’Dri, Aya Brigitte; Kpré, Aka Jean-Noël; Doumbia, Aoussou (December 2024). "Managing fires in a woody encroachment context: Fine fuel load does not change across fire seasons in a Guinean savanna (West Africa)". Journal of Environmental Management. 371: 123236. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2024.123236.
  176. ^ Vauttoux, R. 1976. Contribution a l'etude de l'evolution des strates arboree et arbustive dans la savane de Lamto (Cote-d'Ivore). Ann. Univ. Abidjan 13:35–63.
  177. ^ Swaine, M. D., W. D. Hawthorne, and T. K. Orgle. 1992. The effects of fire exclusion on savanna vegetation at Kpong, Ghana. Biotropica 24:166–172.
  178. ^ a b Bassett, TJ; Boutrais, J (2017). "Cattle and trees in the West African savanna" (PDF). Contesting Forestry in West Africa. Taylor and Francis Inc. pp. 242–263.
  179. ^ Mitchard, E. T. A.; Saatchi, S. S.; Gerard, F. F.; Lewis, S. L.; Meir, P. (2009-08-26). "Measuring Woody Encroachment along a Forest–Savanna Boundary in Central Africa". Earth Interactions. 13 (8): 1–29. Bibcode:2009EaInt..13h...1M. doi:10.1175/2009EI278.1. hdl:20.500.11820/8bc2ada0-606e-4d33-9cad-b187a23e318f. S2CID 140640631.
  180. ^ Loft, Ty; Stevens, Nicola; Gonçalves, Francisco Maiato Pedro; Oliveras-Menor, Imma (February 2024). "Extensive woody encroachment altering Angolan miombo woodlands despite cropland expansion and frequent fires". Global Change Biology. 30 (2). doi:10.1111/gcb.17171. ISSN 1354-1013.
  181. ^ Ministry of Environment, Forestry and Tourism (2024), Review and consolidation of Namibia's bush thickening maps, Namibia.
  182. ^ Atlas of Namibia Team (2022). "Woody plant cover and bush encroachment". Atlas of Namibia: its land, water and life (2nd ed.). Windhoek: Namibia Nature Foundation.
  183. ^ Stoldt, Ina Wilkie and Mirja. "The story of Namibian bush: Turning problems into opportunities". Conservation Namibia. Retrieved 2023-12-04.
  184. ^ "Bush encroachment must be curbed". Namibia Economist. Retrieved 23 October 2015.
  185. ^ Garrard, Svenja; Heyns, P.; Pfaffenthaler, Michelle; Schneider, Gabi (2017). Environmental awareness for sustainable development : a resource book for Namibia (1 ed.). Windhoek: Hanns Seidel Foundation. ISBN 978-99945-79-88-4. OCLC 1031052763.
  186. ^ Heita, Hleni T. N.; Dressler, Gunnar; Schwieger, Diego A. Menestrey; Mbidzo, Meed (2023-12-09). "Pastoralists' perceptions on the future of cattle farming amidst rangeland degradation: A case study from Namibia's semiarid communal areas". Rangelands. 46: 1–12. doi:10.1016/j.rala.2023.10.001. ISSN 0190-0528.
  187. ^ Irob, Katja; Blaum, Niels; Weiss-Aparicio, Alex; Hauptfleisch, Morgan; Hering, Robert; Uiseb, Kenneth; Tietjen, Britta (February 2023). "Savanna resilience to droughts increases with the proportion of browsing wild herbivores and plant functional diversity". Journal of Applied Ecology. 60 (2): 251–262. Bibcode:2023JApEc..60..251I. doi:10.1111/1365-2664.14351. ISSN 0021-8901. S2CID 256483101.
  188. ^ Puttick, James R; Timm Hoffman, M; O'Connor, Timothy G (2022-01-02). "The effect of changes in human drivers on the fire regimes of South African grassland and savanna environments over the past 100 years". African Journal of Range & Forage Science. 39 (1): 107–123. Bibcode:2022AJRFS..39..107P. doi:10.2989/10220119.2022.2033322. ISSN 1022-0119. S2CID 247102250.
  189. ^ Humphrey, Glynis; Eastment, Conor; Gillson, Lindsey; Timm Hoffman, M (January 2022). "Woody cover change in relation to fire history and land-use in the savanna-woodlands of north-east Namibia (1996–2019)". African Journal of Range & Forage Science. 39 (1): 96–106. Bibcode:2022AJRFS..39...96H. doi:10.2989/10220119.2021.2005145. ISSN 1022-0119. S2CID 246918008.
  190. ^ Eastment, Conor; Humphrey, Glynis; Hoffman, Michael Timm; Gillson, Lindsey (March 2022). "The influence of contrasting fire management practice on bush encroachment: Lessons from Bwabwata National Park, Namibia". Journal of Vegetation Science. 33 (2). Bibcode:2022JVegS..33E3123E. doi:10.1111/jvs.13123. ISSN 1100-9233. S2CID 247089338.
  191. ^ Mapani, Benjamin; Shikangalah, Rosemary; Mapaure, Isaac; Musimba, Aansbert (2021), Leal Filho, Walter; Ogugu, Nicholas; Adelake, Lydia; Ayal, Desalegn (eds.), "Dichrostachys cinerea Growth Rings as Natural Archives for Climatic Variation in Namibia", African Handbook of Climate Change Adaptation, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 1–14, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-42091-8_257-1, ISBN 978-3-030-42091-8, S2CID 234267768
  192. ^ Reiner, Florian; Brandt, Martin; Tong, Xiaoye; Skole, David; Kariryaa, Ankit; Ciais, Philippe; Davies, Andrew; Hiernaux, Pierre; Chave, Jérôme; Mugabowindekwe, Maurice; Igel, Christian; Oehmcke, Stefan; Gieseke, Fabian; Li, Sizhuo; Liu, Siyu (2023-05-02). "More than one quarter of Africa's tree cover is found outside areas previously classified as forest". Nature Communications. 14 (1): 2258. Bibcode:2023NatCo..14.2258R. doi:10.1038/s41467-023-37880-4. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 10154416. PMID 37130845.
  193. ^ Bravo-García, Javier; Camarillo-Naranjo, Juan; Blanco-Velázquez, Francisco J.; González-Peñaloza, Félix; Anaya-Romero, María (2024-09-25). "Mapping the potential habitat suitability and opportunities of bush encroacher species in Southern Africa: a case study of the SteamBioAfrica project". Frontiers of Biogeography. 17. doi:10.21425/fob.17.136222. ISSN 1948-6596.
  194. ^ Government of Namibia (2017). Fifth National Development Plan (NDP5) 2017/18 – 2021/2022. National Planning Commission of Namibia.
  195. ^ "UNCCD – Namibia | Knowledge Hub – Overview of LDN Targets". UNCCD. 2018. Retrieved 1 April 2021.
  196. ^ Laufs, J., Gschwender, F., Kamenye, P., Jäger, M., Wilkie, I., Theis, J., David, A. (2024) Synthesis Paper - A decade of targeted sector development for bush control and biomass utilisation in Namibia, Windhoek, Namibia.
  197. ^ Birch, C.; Harper-Simmonds, L.; Lindeque, P.; Middleton, A. (2017). Benefits of bush control in Namibia. A national economic study for Namibia and a case for the Otjozondjupa Region (PDF) (Report). Economics of Land Degradation (ELD) Initiative.
  198. ^ Mupangwa, Johnfisher; Lutaaya, Emmanuel; Shipandeni, Maria Ndakula Tautiko; Kahumba, Absalom; Charamba, Vonai; Shiningavamwe, Katrina Lugambo (2023), Fanadzo, Morris; Dunjana, Nothando; Mupambwa, Hupenyu Allan; Dube, Ernest (eds.), "Utilising Encroacher Bush in Animal Feeding", Towards Sustainable Food Production in Africa: Best Management Practices and Technologies, Sustainability Sciences in Asia and Africa, Singapore: Springer Nature, pp. 239–265, doi:10.1007/978-981-99-2427-1_14, ISBN 978-981-99-2427-1, retrieved 2023-07-13
  199. ^ Charis, Gratitude; Danha, Gwiranai; Muzenda, Edison (1 January 2019). "Waste valorisation opportunities for bush encroacher biomass in savannah ecosystems: A comparative case analysis of Botswana and Namibia". Procedia Manufacturing. 35: 974–979. doi:10.1016/j.promfg.2019.06.044.
  200. ^ FSC Africa (17 March 2020). "From Bush to Charcoal: the Greenest Charcoal Comes from Namibia". FSC Africa. Archived from the original on 27 July 2020. Retrieved 14 May 2020.
  201. ^ "The FSC National Forest Stewardship Standard for the Republic of Namibia". FSC International. Retrieved 17 February 2020.
  202. ^ FSC Africa (10 April 2020). "1,6 million hectares: Namibia reaches new heights in FSC certification". FSC Africa. Retrieved 14 May 2020.
  203. ^ "Home". Namibia Charcoal Association. Retrieved 2023-12-17.
  204. ^ Hoffmann, Jürgen. "De-bushing initiatives are coordinated". South African Institute of International Affairs. Retrieved 24 February 2015.
  205. ^ Shigwedha, Absalom. "De-bushing advisory service set up". The Namibian. Retrieved 13 November 2016.
  206. ^ Zimmer, Katrin; Amputu, Vistorina; Schwarz, Lisa-Maricia; Linstädter, Anja; Sandhage-Hofmann, Alexandra (March 2024). "Soil characteristics within vegetation patches are sensitive indicators of savanna rangeland degradation in central Namibia". Geoderma Regional. 36: e00771. Bibcode:2024GeodR..3600771Z. doi:10.1016/j.geodrs.2024.e00771.
  207. ^ a b Charis, Gratitude; Danha, Gwiranai; Muzenda, Edison (1 January 2019). "Waste valorisation opportunities for bush encroacher biomass in savannah ecosystems: A comparative case analysis of Botswana and Namibia". Procedia Manufacturing. 35: 974–979. doi:10.1016/j.promfg.2019.06.044.
  208. ^ Vegten, J. A. (April 1984). "Thornbush invasion in a savanna ecosystem in eastern Botswana". Vegetatio. 56 (1): 3–7. doi:10.1007/bf00036129. ISSN 0042-3106. S2CID 29215146.
  209. ^ Moleele, N.M.; Ringrose, S.; Matheson, W.; Vanderpost, C. (January 2002). "More woody plants? the status of bush encroachment in Botswana's grazing areas". Journal of Environmental Management. 64 (1): 3–11. Bibcode:2002JEnvM..64....3M. doi:10.1006/jema.2001.0486. PMID 11876072.
  210. ^ Dougill, Andrew J.; Akanyang, Lawrence; Perkins, Jeremy S.; Eckardt, Frank D.; Stringer, Lindsay C.; Favretto, Nicola; Atlhopheng, Julius; Mulale, Kutlwano (March 2016). "Land use, rangeland degradation and ecological changes in the southern Kalahari, Botswana". African Journal of Ecology. 54 (1): 59–67. Bibcode:2016AfJEc..54...59D. doi:10.1111/aje.12265.
  211. ^ Ringrose, Susan; Vanderpost, Cornelis; Matheson, Wilma (July 1996). "The use of integrated remotely sensed and GIS data to determine causes of vegetation cover change in southern Botswana". Applied Geography. 16 (3): 225–242. Bibcode:1996AppGe..16..225R. doi:10.1016/0143-6228(96)00005-7.
  212. ^ Reed, M.S.; Stringer, L.C.; Dougill, A.J.; Perkins, J.S.; Atlhopheng, J.R.; Mulale, K.; Favretto, N. (March 2015). "Reorienting land degradation towards sustainable land management: Linking sustainable livelihoods with ecosystem services in rangeland systems". Journal of Environmental Management. 151: 472–485. Bibcode:2015JEnvM.151..472R. doi:10.1016/j.jenvman.2014.11.010. PMID 25617787.
  213. ^ Mmolai, Esther (23 January 2018). "Botswana: Savannah Degradation Threatens Country". AllAfrica. Retrieved 8 June 2020.
  214. ^ Keakabetse, Boniface (5 December 2017). "North-West communities pilot climate smart projects". Mmegi Online. Retrieved 8 June 2020.
  215. ^ Motsamai, Mmoniemang (23 March 2021). "Botswana: Kereng Outlines Projects". allAfrica.com. Retrieved 29 March 2021.
  216. ^ Hottman, M.T.; O'Connor, T.G. (July 1999). "Vegetation change over 40 years in the Weenen/Muden area, KwaZulu-Natal: evidence from photo-panoramas". African Journal of Range & Forage Science. 16 (2–3): 71–88. Bibcode:1999AJRFS..16...71H. doi:10.2989/10220119909485721. ISSN 1022-0119.
  217. ^ Jane Turpie; Pieter Botha; Kevin Coldrey; Katherine Forsythe; Tony Knowles; Gwyneth Letley; Jessica Allen; Ruan de Wet (2019). "Towards a Policy on Indigenous Bush Encroachment in South Africa" (PDF). Department of Environmental Affairs.
  218. ^ T.K.J. Sebitloane; H. Coetzee; K. Kellner; P. Malan (2020). "The socio-economic impacts of bush encroachment in Manthestad, Taung, South Africa". Environmental & Socio-economic Studies. 8: Issue 3 (3): 1–11. Bibcode:2020ESES....8c...1S. doi:10.2478/environ-2020-0013.
  219. ^ a b Suttie, J. M.; Reynolds, Stephen G.; Batello, Caterina (2005). Grasslands of the world. Rome: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. ISBN 978-92-5-105337-9. OCLC 61697614.
  220. ^ Ndamane, Nandipha Gloria; Kraai, Manqhai; Mkhize, Ntuthuko Raphael; Tjelele, Tlou Julius; Tsvuura, Zivanai (2024-09-06). de Oliveira, Mozaniel Santana (ed.). "Increasing densities of Leucosidea sericea have minimal effects on grazing capacity and soil characteristics of a high-altitude communal rangeland at Vuvu, South Africa". PLOS ONE. 19 (9): e0308472. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0308472. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 11379305. PMID 39240942.
  221. ^ Marquart, A; Slooten, E; Jordaan, Fp; Vermeulen, M; Kellner, K (2023-09-19). "The control of the encroaching shrub Seriphium plumosum ( L. ) Thunb. (Asteraceae) and the response of the grassy layer in a South African semi-arid rangeland". African Journal of Range & Forage Science. 40 (3): 316–321. doi:10.2989/10220119.2022.2086620. ISSN 1022-0119.
  222. ^ Singini, Edith J.; McMillan, Bridgette M.; Newete, Solomon W.; Witkowski, Ed T. F. (2025-01-01). "Ecological drivers of Seriphium plumosum encroachment: Implications for management and conservation". South African Journal of Botany. 176: 21–28. doi:10.1016/j.sajb.2024.11.001. ISSN 0254-6299.
  223. ^ Mogashoa, Regina; Dlamini, Phesheya; Gxasheka, Masibonge (2021-02-01). "Grass species richness decreases along a woody plant encroachment gradient in a semi-arid savanna grassland, South Africa". Landscape Ecology. 36 (2): 617–636. Bibcode:2021LaEco..36..617M. doi:10.1007/s10980-020-01150-1. ISSN 1572-9761.
  224. ^ "Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act. | UNEP Law and Environment Assistance Platform". leap.unep.org. Retrieved 2022-06-29.
  225. ^ van Wilgen, Brian W; Wannenburgh, Andrew (2016). "Co-facilitating invasive species control, water conservation and poverty relief: achievements and challenges in South Africa's Working for Water programme". Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability. 19: 7–17. Bibcode:2016COES...19....7V. doi:10.1016/j.cosust.2015.08.012. hdl:10019.1/112990.
  226. ^ Letley, G. K.; Turpie, J. K. (2023). Designing Viable Strategies and Financing Mechanisms for Securing Hydrological Ecosystem Services in South Africa: A Review, Investigation, and Decision Support Framework. Report to the Water Research Commission, WRC Report No. 3089/1/23, ISBN 978-0-6392-0531-1
  227. ^ Bell, Wesley; Hoffman, M Timm; Visser, Vernon; Kirsten, Tim (2023-12-01). "Modelling land condition to augment Land Degradation Neutrality assessments - The succulent Karoo biome of South Africa as a case study". Journal of Arid Environments. 219: 105086. Bibcode:2023JArEn.21905086B. doi:10.1016/j.jaridenv.2023.105086. ISSN 0140-1963. S2CID 265015024.
  228. ^ Luvuno, Linda; Biggs, Reinette; Stevens, Nicola; Esler, Karen (2022-01-26). "Perceived impacts of woody encroachment on ecosystem services in Hluhluwe, South Africa". Ecology and Society. 27 (1). doi:10.5751/ES-12767-270104. ISSN 1708-3087.
  229. ^ Kellner, Klaus; Mangani, Reletile T.; Sebitloane, Tshegofatso J.K.; Chirima, Johannes G.; Meyer, Nadine; Coetzee, Hendri C.; Malan, Pieter W.; Koch, Jaco (2021). "Restoration after bush control in selected range-land areas of semi-arid savannas in South Africa". Bothalia: African Biodiversity & Conservation. 51 (1): 1–13. doi:10.38201/btha.abc.v51.i1.7. ISSN 0006-8241. S2CID 232410555.
  230. ^ Strydom, Tercia; Smit, Izak P. J.; Govender, Navashni; Coetsee, Corli; Singh, Jenia; Davies, Andrew B.; van Wilgen, Brian W. (2023-02-15). "High-intensity fires may have limited medium-term effectiveness for reversing woody plant encroachment in an African savanna". Journal of Applied Ecology. 60 (4): 661–672. Bibcode:2023JApEc..60..661S. doi:10.1111/1365-2664.14362. ISSN 0021-8901. S2CID 256966724.
  231. ^ Zhou, Yong; Tingley, Morgan W.; Case, Madelon F.; Coetsee, Corli; Kiker, Gregory A.; Scholtz, Rheinhardt; Venter, Freek J.; Staver, A. Carla (2021-08-09). "Woody encroachment happens via intensification, not extensification, of species ranges in an African savanna". Ecological Applications. 31 (8): e02437. Bibcode:2021EcoAp..31E2437Z. doi:10.1002/eap.2437. ISSN 1051-0761. PMID 34374155.
  232. ^ Coetsee, Corli; Botha, Judith; Case, Madelon F.; Manganyi, Adolf; Siebert, Frances (2023-01-26). "The hard lives of trees in African savanna—Even without elephants". Austral Ecology. 48 (3): 532–551. Bibcode:2023AusEc..48..532C. doi:10.1111/aec.13283. ISSN 1442-9985. S2CID 256356329.
  233. ^ Vukeya, Loyd Rodney; Mokotjomela, Thabiso Michael; Malebo, Ntsoaki Joyce; Smith, David Alan Ehlers; Oke, Saheed (March 2023). "The vegetation cover dynamics and potential drivers of habitat change over 30 years in the Free State National Botanical Garden, South Africa". Regional Environmental Change. 23 (1): 24. Bibcode:2023REnvC..23...24V. doi:10.1007/s10113-022-02024-9. ISSN 1436-3798. S2CID 255881546.
  234. ^ Dube, Kaitano; Chikodzi, David; Nhamo, Godwell; Chapungu, Lazarus (2023-11-19). "Climate and conservation challenges facing Marakele National Park and their implications for tourism". Cogent Social Sciences. 9 (2). doi:10.1080/23311886.2023.2282705. ISSN 2331-1886. S2CID 265324818.
  235. ^ Mani, Suma; Osborne, Colin P.; Cleaver, Frances (2021-09-27). "Land degradation in South Africa: Justice and climate change in tension". People and Nature. 3 (5): 978–989. Bibcode:2021PeoNa...3..978M. doi:10.1002/pan3.10260. ISSN 2575-8314. S2CID 239238023.
  236. ^ Aldworth, Tiffany A.; Toucher, Michele L. W.; Clulow, Alistair D. (2023-08-29). "The Potential Impact of Woody Encroachment on Evapotranspiration Losses in South Africa's Savannas: A combined Systematic Review and meta-Analysis Approach". Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology. 24 (1): 25–35. doi:10.1016/j.ecohyd.2023.08.016. ISSN 1642-3593. S2CID 261384881.
  237. ^ Coetsee, C.; February, E. C.; Wigley, B. J.; Kleyn, L.; Strydom, T.; Hedin, L. O.; Watson, H.; Attore, F.; Pellegrini, A. (2023-09-19). "Soil organic carbon is buffered by grass inputs regardless of woody cover or fire frequency in an African savanna". Journal of Ecology. 111 (11): 2483–2495. Bibcode:2023JEcol.111.2483C. doi:10.1111/1365-2745.14199. hdl:11573/1708611. ISSN 0022-0477. S2CID 262101052.
  238. ^ Marake M; Mokuku C; Majoro M; Mokitimi N. (1998). "Global change and subsistence rangelands in southern Africa: Resource variability, access and use in relation to rural livelihoods and welfare. A preliminary report and literature review for Lesotho". National University of Lesotho.
  239. ^ Turpie, Jane; Benn, Grant; Thompson, Mark; Barker, Nigel (12 March 2021). "Accounting for land cover changes and degradation in the Katse and Mohale Dam catchments of the Lesotho highlands". African Journal of Range & Forage Science. 38 (1): 53–66. Bibcode:2021AJRFS..38...53T. doi:10.2989/10220119.2020.1846214. hdl:2263/85899. ISSN 1022-0119. S2CID 232105650.
  240. ^ Lerotholi, Nkuebe; Seleteng-Kose, Lerato; Odenya, William; Chatanga, Peter; Mapeshoane, Botle; Marake, Makoala V. (2023-08-17). "Impact of mechanical shrub removal on encroached mountain rangelands in Lesotho, southern Africa". African Journal of Ecology. 62. doi:10.1111/aje.13203. ISSN 0141-6707. S2CID 261057553.
  241. ^ Roques, K.G.; O'Connor, T.G.; Watkinson, A.R. (April 2001). "Dynamics of shrub encroachment in an African savanna: relative influences of fire, herbivory, rainfall and density dependence: Dynamics and causes of shrub encroachment". Journal of Applied Ecology. 38 (2): 268–280. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2664.2001.00567.x.
  242. ^ Beyene, S. T. (2015). "Rangeland Degradation in a Semi-Arid Communal Savannah of Swaziland: Long–Term DIP-Tank Use Effects on Woody Plant Structure, Cover and their Indigenous Use in Three Soil Types". Land Degrad. Develop. 26 (4): 311–323. Bibcode:2015LDeDe..26..311B. doi:10.1002/ldr.2203. S2CID 128787763.
  243. ^ Daskin, Joshua H.; Stalmans, Marc; Pringle, Robert M. (January 2016). Gomez-Aparicio, Lorena (ed.). "Ecological legacies of civil war: 35-year increase in savanna tree cover following wholesale large-mammal declines". Journal of Ecology. 104 (1): 79–89. Bibcode:2016JEcol.104...79D. doi:10.1111/1365-2745.12483. ISSN 0022-0477. S2CID 13709530.
  244. ^ Blaser, Wilma J. (2013). Impact of woody encroachment on soil-plant-herbivore interactions in the Kafue Flats floodplain ecosystem (Thesis). ETH Zürich. doi:10.3929/ethz-a-009933926. hdl:20.500.11850/70796.
  245. ^ Mzezewa, J. and J. Gotosa. (2009). "Bush encroachment in Zimbabwe: a preliminary observation on soil properties". Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa. 11: 298–318. S2CID 127911174.
  246. ^ Staples, R.R. 1945. Veld Burning. Rhodesian Agricultural Journal 42, 44-52.
  247. ^ West, O (1947). "Thorn bush encroachment in relation to the management of veld grazing". The Rhodesia Agricultural Journal. 44 (5): 488–497. OCLC 709537921.
  248. ^ Mohammed, Elmugheira M. I.; H., Elhag A. M.; Ndakidemi, Patrick A.; Treydte, Anna C. (4 March 2021). "Anthropogenic Pressure on Tree Species Diversity, Composition, and Growth of Balanites aegyptiaca in Dinder Biosphere Reserve, Sudan". Plants. 10 (3): 483. doi:10.3390/plants10030483. ISSN 2223-7747. PMC 8000727. PMID 33806457. S2CID 232384911.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List_of_ecoregions_affected_by_woody_plant_encroachment&oldid=1258499622"