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List of Ming dynasty era names

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The Ming dynasty was the last unified dynasty founded by the Han ethnic group in Chinese history, lasting for 276 years.[1] The dynasty continued the tradition of using the emperor's era name, which began with Emperor Wu of Han, to record the year. In total, there were 17 era names used. The first era name, Hongwu, was inaugurated by Zhu Yuanzhang in 1368, while the last era name, Chongzhen, was suspended after the Chongzhen Emperor hanged himself in Meishan during the Jiashen Incident. The longest era name in use was Wanli, lasting approximately 47 years and 7 months, while the shortest was Taichang, which succeeded Wanli for only about 5 months.[2]

After the Jiashen Incident, the Ming imperial clan established the Southern Ming regimes in the Jiangnan area. However, these regimes were eventually eradicated after the capture and killing of Zhu Youlang. The Kingdom of Tungning, which supported the Ming dynasty's political legitimacy (奉正朔; fengzhengshuo), eventually surrendered to the Qing dynasty.[3] The Southern Ming used a total of three era names,[4] which are listed below.

Before the Ming dynasty, most emperors used multiple era names during their reigns. However, during the Hongwu Emperor's reign, a "one reign, one era name" (一世一元制) system was adopted, leading to the use of only one era name by later emperors.[5] This resulted in the era name being commonly used to refer to the emperor himself among the people.[6] There were some exceptions, such as Emperor Yingzong who used two era names.[2] The Ming dynasty era name remained relatively unchanged and was typically used for a longer period of time.[7] The change of era usually occurred in the year following a new emperor's ascension to the throne, but there were a few instances of special circumstances. For example, after Zhu Di's successful Jingnan campaign in 1402, the era name Jianwen was abolished and replaced with the era name Hongwu.[8][9][10] In 1457, after the Duomen Coup (奪門之變), Emperor Yongzong was restored to the throne and the era was changed to Tianshun that year.[11] There were also cases where two edicts to change the era were issued in the same year. For example, when the Wanli Emperor died in 1620, the Taichang Emperor ascended to the throne. It was planned to use the era name Taichang the following year (1621), but the Taichang Emperor also died in the same year. The newly enthroned Tianqi Emperor sought the opinions of his ministers and ultimately used the Taichang era name for that year, before changing it to the era name Tianqi the following year.[12] During the Ming dynasty, many of the era names were repeated from the previous dynasties, including era names used by peasant rebellion armies,[a] which became a source of jokes until the end of the dynasty.[18][19][20]

Even outer vassals like Joseon and the Ryukyu Kingdom adopted the Ming dynasty era name. However, after being forced to submit to the Qing dynasty in 1637, Joseon publicly used the Qing era name but secretly continued to use the era name Chongzhen as a way to show their respect for the Ming and opposition to the Qing.[21]

The interpretations of the Ming emperor's era names were not well-documented in official announcements,[22] but Feng Tianyu's (冯天瑜) interpretation in Ming Qing nianhao tanwei (明清年号探微) is referenced here. The period of use for each era name is based on the History of Ming, compiled by Zhang Tingyu, and Nanjiang yishi (南疆逸史) written by Wen Ruilin (溫睿臨).

List

[edit]
Era name Start date End date Length of use Emperor Meaning Derived from Ref.
Hongwu
洪武 		23 January 1368
Datong calendar
  • 元年正月初四日
    4th day of the 1st month of the 1st year
 		5 February 1399
Datong calendar
  • 三十一年十二月二十九日
    29th day of the 12th month of the 31st year
 		30 years,
12 months
and 27 days 		Hongwu Emperor Vastly Martial None [23][24][22][25]
Jianwen
建文 		6 February 1399
Datong calendar
  • 元年正月初一日
    1st day of the 1st month of the 1st year
 		29 July 1402
Datong calendar
  • 四年六月二十九日
    19th day of the 6th month of the 4th year
 		3 years
and 6 months 		Jianwen Emperor Establishing Civility [23][24][22][26][9]
Hongwu
洪武 		30 July 1402
Datong calendar
  • 三十五年七月初一日
    1st day of the 7th month of the 35th year
 		22 January 1403
Datong calendar
  • 三十五年十二月二十九日
    29th day of the 12th month of the 35th year
 		6 months Hongwu Emperor
(Yongle Emperor) 		(Ibid.) [22][8][9]
Yongle
永樂 		23 January 1403
Datong calendar
  • 元年正月初一日
    1st day of the 1st month of the 1st year
 		19 January 1425
Datong calendar
  • 二十二年十二月三十日
    30th day of the 12th month of the 22nd year
 		22 years Yongle Emperor Perpetual Happiness [27][24][22][28][9]
Hongxi
洪熙 		20 January 1425
Datong calendar
  • 元年正月初一日
    1st day of the 1st month of the 1st year
 		7 February 1426
Datong calendar
  • 元年十二月三十日
    30th day of the 12th month of the 1st year
 		1 year Hongxi Emperor Vastly Bright [27][24][22][29]
Xuande
宣德 		8 February 1426
Datong calendar
  • 元年正月初一日
    1st day of the 1st month of the 1st year
 		17 January 1436
Datong calendar
  • 十年十二月二十九日
    29th day of the 12th month of the 10th year
 		10 years Xuande Emperor Proclamation of Virtue [27][30][22][31]
Zhengtong
正統 		18 January 1436
Datong calendar
  • 元年正月初一日
    1st day of the 1st month of the 1st year
 		13 January 1450
Datong calendar
  • 十四年十二月三十日
    30th day of the 12th month of the 14th year
 		14 years Emperor Yingzong Right Governance [27][30][4][32]
Jingtai
景泰 		14 January 1450
Datong calendar
  • 元年正月初一日
    1st day of the 1st month of the 1st year
 		14 February 1457
Datong calendar
  • 八年正月二十日
    20th day of the 1st month of the 8th year
 		7 years
and 20 days 		Jingtai Emperor Exalted View [27][30][4][33]
Tianshun
天順 		15 February 1457
Datong calendar
  • 元年正月二十一日
    21st day of the 1st month of the 1st year
 		26 January 1465
Datong calendar
  • 八年十二月二十九日
    29th day of the 12th month of the 8th year
 		7 years,
11 months
and 9 days 		Emperor Yingzong Obedience to Heaven [34][30][4][35]
Chenghua
成化 		27 January 1465
Datong calendar
  • 元年正月初一日
    1st day of the 1st month of the 1st year
 		13 January 1488
Datong calendar
  • 二十三年十二月三十日
    30th day of the 12th month of the 23rd year
 		23 years Chenghua Emperor Accomplished Change
Origin text: Wenzi
Passage (Chinese): 大常之道，生物而不有，成化而不宰[36]
 [34][30][4][37]
Hongzhi
弘治 		14 January 1488
Datong calendar
  • 元年正月初一日
    1st day of the 1st month of the 1st year
 		23 January 1506
Datong calendar
  • 十八年十二月三十日
    30th day of the 12th month of the 18th year
 		18 years Hongzhi Emperor Great Governance None [34][30][4][38]
Zhengde
正德 		24 January 1506
Datong calendar
  • 元年正月初一日
    1st day of the 1st month of the 1st year
 		27 January 1522
Datong calendar
  • 十六年十二月三十日
    30th day of the 12th month of the 16th year
 		16 years Zhengde Emperor Right Virtue, or
Rectification of Virtue 		The era name Zhengde has two origin texts
Origin text: Book of Documents
Passage (Chinese): 禹曰：……正德、利用、厚生、惟和[39]
English translation: Yu said, ......there are the rectification of (the people's) virtue, (the tools and other things) that supply the conveniences of life, and the securing abundant means of sustentation - these must be harmoniously attended to.)[40]
Origin text: Correct Interpretation of the Book of Documents
Passage (Chinese): 正德者，自正其德，居上位者正己以治民[41]
 [34][30][4][42]
Jiajing
嘉靖 		28 January 1522
Datong calendar
  • 元年正月初一日
    1st day of the 1st month of the 1st year
 		8 February 1567
Datong calendar
  • 四十五年十二月三十日
    30th day of the 12th month of the 45th year
 		45 years Jiajing Emperor Admirable Tranquility
Origin text: Book of Documents
Passage (Chinese): 周公曰：......不敢荒寧，嘉靖殷邦[43]
English translation: The duke of Zhou said, ...He did not dare to indulge in useless ease, but admirably and tranquilly presided over the regions of Yin, ...[44]
 [34][30][4][45]
Longqing
隆慶 		9 February 1567
Datong calendar
  • 元年正月初一日
    1st day of the 1st month of the 1st year
 		1 February 1573
Datong calendar
  • 六年十二月二十九日
    29th day of the 12th month of the 6th year
 		6 years Longqing Emperor Great Celebration None [46][30][4][47]
Wanli
萬曆 		2 February 1573
Datong calendar
  • 元年正月初一日
    1st day of the 1st month of the 1st year
 		27 August 1620
Datong calendar
  • 四十八年七月三十日
    30th day of the 7th month of the 48th year
 		47 years
and 7 months 		Wanli Emperor Ten Thousand Calendars [46][30][4][48]
Taichang
泰昌 		28 August 1620
Datong calendar
  • 元年八月初一日
    1st day of the 8th month of the 1st year
 		21 January 1621
Datong calendar
  • 元年十二月二十九日
    29th day of the 12th month of the 1st year
 		5 months Taichang Emperor
(Tianqi Emperor) 		Grand Prosperity [46][30][4][49]
Tianqi
天啓 		22 January 1621
Datong calendar
  • 元年正月初一日
    1st day of the 1st month of the 1st year
 		4 February 1628
Datong calendar
  • 七年十二月二十九日
    29th day of the 12th month of the 7th year
 		7 years Tianqi Emperor Heavenly Opening
Origin text: Zuo Zhuan
Passage (Chinese): 卜偃曰：……以是始賞，天啟之矣[50]
English translation: The diviner Yen said, ...That his rewards should commence with this Wei is a proof that Heaven is opening up his way.[51]
 [46][30][4][52][53]
Chongzhen
崇禎 		5 February 1628
Datong calendar
  • 元年正月初一日
    1st day of the 1st month of the 1st year
 		25 April 1644
Datong calendar
  • 十七年三月十九日
    19th day of the 3rd month of the 17th year
 		16 years,
2 months
and 19 days 		Chongzhen Emperor Honorable and Auspicious None [46][30][4][54]

Southern Ming

[edit]
Era name Start date End date Length of use Emperor Meaning Ref.
Chongzhen
崇禎 		19 June 1644
Datong calendar
  • 十七年五月十五日
    15th day of the 5th month of the 17th year
 		27 January 1645
Datong calendar
  • 十七年十二月三十日
    30th day of the 12th month of the 17th year
 		7 months
and 15 days 		Chongzhen Emperor
(Hongguang Emperor) 		(Ibid.) [4][55]
Hongguang
弘光 		28 January 1645
Datong calendar
  • 元年正月初一日
    1st day of the 1st month of the 1st year
 		17 August 1645[b]
Datong calendar
  • 元年閏六月二十六日
    26th day of the leap 6th month of the 1st year
 		6 months
and 26 days 		Hongguang Emperor Great Light [57][4][58][59][60][61]
Longwu
隆武 		18 August 1645
Datong calendar
  • 元年閏六月二十七日[c]
    27th day of the leap 6th month of the 1st year
 		4 February 1647
Datong calendar
  • 二年十二月三十日
    30th day of the 12th month of the 2nd year
 		1 year,
6 months
and 3 days 		Longwu Emperor Plentiful and Martial [57][4][63][59][64][61]
Yongli
永曆 		5 February 1647
Datong calendar
  • 元年正月初一日
    1st day of the 1st month of the 1st year
 		1 June 1662[d]
Datong calendar
  • 十六年四月十五日[d]
    15th day of the 4th month of the 16th year
 		15 years,
3 months
and 15 days[d] 		Yongli Emperor Perpetual Calendar [57][4][66][67]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ For example, the era name Yongle was used by both Zhang Yuxian during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period[13] and Fang La during the late Northern Song dynasty.[14] Similarly, the era name Tianshun was used by both the Red Coat Army (紅襖軍) during the late Jin dynasty[15] and the Tianshun Emperor of the Yuan dynasty,[16] and the era name Zhengde was used by the Western Xia dynasty,[17] etc.
  2. ^ The Prince of Lu (魯) regime maintained the use of the era name Hongguang until 15 February 1646 (弘光元年十二月三十日; 30th day of the 12th month of the 1st year of the Hongguang era).[56]
  3. ^ The date of the Longwu era's inauguration is determined by two sources: Nanming yishi and Nan Ming Shi.[59][62][60][61] Li Chongzhi states that the inauguration occurred in the leap 6th month (閏六月),[57] while both the History of Ming and Nanjiang yishi state that it took place in the dingwei day (26th day) of the leap 6th month (閏六月丁未 (二十六日)).[59][62][60][61]
  4. ^ a b c The Kingdom of Tungning used the era name Yongli until 15 September 1683 (康熙二十二年／永曆三十七年七月二十五日; 25th day of the 7th month of the 37th year of the Yongli era/22nd year of the Kangxi era), when it surrendered to Shi Lang after being defeated at the Battle of Penghu. This means that the era name Yongli was in use for a total of 36 years, 7 months, and 25 days.[65]

References

[edit]

Citations

[edit]
  1. ^ Xu (2000), pp. 298–300.
  2. ^ a b Feng (2016), pp. 25–26.
  3. ^ Nan & Tang (2014), pp. 1201–1314.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Feng (2016), p. 26.
  5. ^ Jinyan, vol. 1.
  6. ^ Wang (2016), p. 115.
  7. ^ Wang (2016), p. 116.
  8. ^ a b Zhang (1739), vol. 5.
  9. ^ a b c d Taizong Shilu, vol. 9b.
  10. ^ Wang & Guan (2019), p. 84.
  11. ^ Zhang (1739), vol. 12.
  12. ^ Wang, Xiaohu (April 2002). 大明泰昌元年大统历考 (PDF). Shanghai: Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 October 2021. Retrieved 1 July 2022.
  13. ^ Li (2004), p. 153.
  14. ^ Li (2004), p. 165.
  15. ^ Li (2004), p. 190.
  16. ^ Li (2004), p. 195.
  17. ^ Li (2004), p. 183.
  18. ^ Shen (1619), vol. 1.
  19. ^ Jishi jiwen, vol. 1.
  20. ^ Zhuozhong zhi, vol. 22.
  21. ^ Sun, Weiguo. 從正朔看朝鮮王朝尊明反清的正統意識 [Pro-Ming/Anti-Qing Sentiment and the Question of Legitimacy: Choson Korea's Use of Ming Reign Titles]. Archived from the original on 1 July 2022. Retrieved 1 July 2022.
  22. ^ a b c d e f g Feng (2016), p. 25.
  23. ^ a b Li (2004), p. 205.
  24. ^ a b c d Liu (2014), p. 94.
  25. ^ Zhang (1739), vols. 2, 4.
  26. ^ Zhang (1739), vols. 4, 5.
  27. ^ a b c d e Li (2004), p. 206.
  28. ^ Zhang (1739), vols. 5, 8.
  29. ^ Zhang (1739), vols. 8, 9.
  30. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m Liu (2014), p. 95.
  31. ^ Zhang (1739), vols. 9, 10.
  32. ^ Zhang (1739), vols. 10, 11.
  33. ^ Zhang (1739), vols. 11, 12.
  34. ^ a b c d e Li (2004), p. 207.
  35. ^ Zhang (1739), vols. 12, 13.
  36. ^ Wenzi, vol. 1, Daoyuan.
  37. ^ Zhang (1739), vols. 13, 15.
  38. ^ Zhang (1739), vols. 15, 16.
  39. ^ Book of Documents, Counsels of Great Yu.
  40. ^ Legge (1879), pp. 46–47.
  41. ^ Shangshu zhengyi, vol. 4, Counsels of Great Yu.
  42. ^ Zhang (1739), vols. 16, 17.
  43. ^ Book of Documents, Against Luxurious Ease.
  44. ^ Legge (1879), p. 202.
  45. ^ Zhang (1739), vols. 17, 19.
  46. ^ a b c d e Li (2004), p. 208.
  47. ^ Zhang (1739), vols. 19, 20.
  48. ^ Zhang (1739), vols. 20, 21, 22.
  49. ^ Zhang (1739), vols. 21, 22.
  50. ^ Chunqiu Zuozhuan zhengyi, vol 10, Duke Min.
  51. ^ Legge (1872), p. 125.
  52. ^ Mote & Twitchett (1988), p. 595.
  53. ^ Zhang (1739), vols. 22, 23.
  54. ^ Zhang (1739), vols. 23, 24.
  55. ^ Nanjiang yishi, vol. 1.
  56. ^ Nanming yeshi, Appendix.
  57. ^ a b c d Li (2004), p. 209.
  58. ^ Nanjiang yishi, vols. 1, 3.
  59. ^ a b c d Zhang (1739), vol. 6.
  60. ^ a b c Nanming yeshi, vol. 2.
  61. ^ a b c d Qian (2016), vol. 2.
  62. ^ a b Nanjiang yishi, vol. 3.
  63. ^ Nanjiang yishi, vols. 3, 4.
  64. ^ Nanming yeshi, vols. 2, 3.
  65. ^ Nanjiang yishi (1830), vol. 10.
  66. ^ Nanjiang yishi, vols. 4, 5.
  67. ^ Nanming yeshi, vol. 3.

Sources

[edit]
In Chinese
  • Wenzi 文子 [Master Wen].
  • Shangshu 尚書 [Book of Documents].
  • Kong, Yingda. Shangshu zhengyi 尚書正義 [Correct Interpretation of the Book of Documents].
  • Kong, Yingda. Chunqiu Zuozhuan zhengyi 春秋左傳正義.
  • Zheng, Xiao. Jinyan 今言 [Actual words, arranged thematically].
  • Taizong Shilu 太宗實錄 [Veritable Records of Emperor Taizong]. n.d.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: year (link)
  • Zhang, Tingyu (1739). Ming Shi 明史 [History of Ming].
  • Shen, Defu (1619). Wanli yehuo bian 萬曆野獲編 [Compilation of Wanli era catastrophes].
  • Chen, Hongmo. Jishi jiwen 繼世紀聞.
  • Liu, Ruoyu. Zhuozhong zhi 酌中志 [An Enlightening Account of Life in the Imperial Palace].
  • Wen, Junlin. Nanjiang yishi 南疆逸史.
  • Li, Yao (1830). Nanjiang yishi 南疆繹史 [Unravelled history of the southern borderlands].
  • Nansha sanyu shi. Nanming yeshi 南明野史 [Unofficial history of the Southern Ming dynasty].
  • Li, Zhaoluo (March 1970). Lidai jiyuan bian 歷代紀元編. Chung Hwa Book.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: year (link)
  • Ding, Fubao (February 1992). Lidai guqian tushuo 歷代古錢圖說. Shanghai People's Press. ISBN 7-5004-1011-5.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: year (link)
  • Qian, Haiyue (2016). Nan Ming Shi 南明史 [History of the Southern Ming]. Beijing: Zhonghua Book. ISBN 9787101044294.
  • Li, Chongzhi (December 2004). Zhongguo lidai nianhao kao 中國歷代年號考 (Revised ed.). Beijing: Zhonghua Book. ISBN 7101025129.
  • Liu, Yingqiu (June 2014). 中國帝王年號的語言文化研究——兼論日、朝、越年號特點 (Master's thesis). Guangxi University.
  • Feng, Tianyu (2016). "Ming Qing nianhao tanwei" 明清年号探微 [Research on the Reign Title of Ming and Qing Dynasties] (PDF). Wuhan University Journal. 69 (3). doi:10.14086/j.cnki.wujhs.2016.03.005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 June 2020. Retrieved 10 October 2021.
  • Wang, Qi (June 2016). 年号：你应该知道的历史常识 (文史杂志2016年第3期 ed.). Sichuan Wenshi Research Hall.
  • Xu, Jun (2000). 中国古代王朝和政权名号探源. Wuchang: Huazhong Normal University Publishing House. ISBN 978-7-5622-2277-4.
  • Nan, Bingwen; Tang, Gang (2014). "第二十二章 南明政权及农民军余部的拥明抗清". 中国断代史·明史. Shanghai People's Press. ISBN 978-7-208-12480-6.
  • Wang, Xiaohu; Guan, Zengjian (June 2019). 明代建文年号的“革除”与未革之说再辨析. Shanghai: Journal of Shanghai Jiaotong University.
In English
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