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Lake Nyos disaster

Coordinates: 6°26′N 10°18′E / 6.44°N 10.30°E / 6.44; 10.30
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Lake Nyos disaster
Lake Nyos as it appeared eight days after the eruption
Lake Nyos disaster is located in Cameroon
Lake Nyos disaster
Lake Nyos disaster
Date21 August 1986 (1986-08-21)
LocationCameroon
Coordinates6°26′N 10°18′E / 6.44°N 10.30°E / 6.44; 10.30
TypeLimnic eruption
Deaths1,746
Non-fatal injuries845

On 21 August 1986, a limnic eruption at Lake Nyos in northwestern Cameroon killed 1,746 people and 3,500 livestock.[1]

The eruption triggered the sudden release of about 100,000–300,000 tons of carbon dioxide (CO2).[2][3] The gas cloud initially rose at nearly 100 kilometres per hour (62 mph; 28 m/s) and then, being heavier than air, descended onto nearby villages, suffocating people and livestock within 25 kilometres (16 mi) of the lake.[4][5]

A degassing system has since been installed at the lake, with the aim of reducing the concentration of CO2 in the waters and therefore the risk of further eruptions. Along with the Lake Monoun disaster two years earlier, it is one of only two recorded limnic eruptions in history.[6]

Eruption and gas release

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What triggered the catastrophic outgassing is not known.[7][8][9] Most geologists suspect a landslide, but some believe that a small volcanic eruption may have occurred on the bed of the lake.[10][11] A third possibility is that cool rainwater falling on one side of the lake triggered the overturn. Others still[who?] believe there was a small earthquake, but because witnesses did not report feeling any tremors on the morning of the disaster, this hypothesis is unlikely.[citation needed] The event resulted in the supersaturated deep water rapidly mixing with the upper layers of the lake, where the reduced pressure allowed the stored CO2 to effervesce out of solution.[12]

It is believed that about 1.2 cubic kilometres (4.2×1010 cu ft) of gas was released.[13] The normally blue waters of the lake turned a deep red after the outgassing, due to iron-rich water from the deep rising to the surface and being oxidised by the air. The level of the lake dropped by about a metre[14] and trees near the lake were knocked down.[15]

Scientists concluded from evidence that a 100 m (330 ft) column of water and foam formed at the surface of the lake, spawning a wave of at least 25 metres (82 ft) that swept the shore on one side.[16]

Since carbon dioxide is 1.5 times the density of air, the cloud hugged the ground and moved down the valleys, where there were various villages. The mass was about 50 metres (160 ft) thick, and travelled downward at 20–50 kilometres per hour (12–31 mph; 5.6–13.9 m/s). For roughly 23 kilometres (14 mi), the gas cloud was concentrated enough to suffocate many people in their sleep in the villages of Nyos, Kam, Cha, and Subum.[4] About 4,000 inhabitants fled the area, and many of these developed respiratory problems, lesions, and paralysis as a result of the gas cloud.[17]

It is a possibility that other volcanic gases were released along with the CO2, as some survivors reported a smell of gunpowder or rotten eggs, which indicates that sulfur dioxide and hydrogen sulfide were present at concentrations above their odour thresholds. However, CO2 was the only gas detected in samples of lake water, suggesting that this was the predominant gas released and as such the main cause of the incident.[17]

Effects on survivors

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Cattle suffocated by carbon dioxide from Lake Nyos

Reporters in the area described the scene as "looking like the aftermath of a neutron bomb."[18] One survivor, Joseph Nkwain from Subum, described himself when he awoke after the gases had struck:[4][19]

I could not speak. I became unconscious. I could not open my mouth because then I smelled something terrible ... I heard my daughter snoring in a terrible way, very abnormal ... When crossing to my daughter's bed ... I collapsed and fell. I was there till nine o'clock in the morning (of Friday, the next day) ... until a friend of mine came and knocked at my door ... I was surprised to see that my trousers were red, had some stains like honey. I saw some ... starchy mess on my body. My arms had some wounds ... I didn't really know how I got these wounds ... I opened the door ... I wanted to speak, my breath would not come out ... My daughter was already dead ... I went into my daughter's bed, thinking that she was still sleeping. I slept till it was 4.30 in the afternoon ... on Friday (the same day). (Then) I managed to go over to my neighbours' houses. They were all dead ... I decided to leave ... (because) most of my family was in Wum ... I got my motorcycle ... A friend whose father had died left with me (for) Wum ... As I rode ... through Nyos I didn't see any sign of any living thing ... (When I got to Wum), I was unable to walk, even to talk ... my body was completely weak.

Following the eruption, many survivors were treated at the main hospital in Yaoundé, the country's capital. It was believed that many of the victims had been poisoned by sulphur-based gases. Poisoning by these gases would lead to burning pains in the eyes and nose, coughing and signs of asphyxiation similar to being strangled.[9]

Interviews with survivors and pathologic studies indicated that victims rapidly lost consciousness and that death was caused by CO2 asphyxiation.[20] At nonlethal levels, CO2 can produce sensory hallucinations, such that many people exposed to CO2 report the odor of sulfuric compounds when none are present.[20] Skin lesions found on survivors represent pressure sores, and in a few cases exposure to a heat source, but there is no evidence of chemical burns or of flash burns from exposure to hot gases.[20]

De-gassing

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The scale of the disaster led to much study on how a recurrence could be prevented.[21] Several researchers proposed the installation of degassing columns from rafts in the middle of the lake.[22][23] The principle is to slowly vent the CO2 by lifting heavily saturated water from the bottom of the lake through a pipe, initially by using a pump, but only until the release of gas inside the pipe naturally lifts the column of effervescing water, making the process self-sustaining.[24]

Starting from 1995, feasibility studies were successfully conducted, and the first permanent degassing tube was installed at Lake Nyos in 2001. Two additional pipes were installed in 2011.[24][25] In 2019 it was determined that the degassing had reached an essentially steady state and that a single one of the installed pipes would be able to self-sustain the degassing process into the future, indefinitely maintaining the CO2 at a safe level, without any need for external power.[26]

Similar danger suspected at Lake Kivu

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Following the Lake Nyos disaster, scientists investigated other African lakes to see if a similar phenomenon could happen elsewhere. In 2005, Lake Kivu in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 2,000 times larger than Lake Nyos, was also found to be supersaturated, and geologists found evidence that outgassing events around the lake happened about every thousand years.[27]

However, a study undertaken in 2018 and released in 2020 found flaws in the 2005 study, including a possible bias in the conversion of concentrations to partial pressures, to an overestimation of concentrations, or to a problem of calibration of sensors at high pressure. The 2020 study found that when these errors were accounted for, the risk of a gas eruption at Lake Kivu did not seem to be increasing over time.[28]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Hammond, Trevor (1 August 2018). "Lake Nyos Disaster: August 21, 1986". Fishwrap. Archived from the original on 10 October 2022. Retrieved 14 April 2021.
  2. ^ Socolow, Robert H. (July 2005). "Can We Bury Global Warming?". Scientific American. Vol. 293, no. 1. pp. 49–55. Bibcode:2005SciAm.293a..49S. doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0705-49. ISSN 0036-8733. JSTOR 26061071. PMID 16008301.
  3. ^ Mathew Fomine, Forka Leypey (2011). "The Strange Lake Nyos CO2 Gas Disaster". Australasian Journal of Disaster and Trauma Studies. 2011–1. ISSN 1174-4707. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 4 February 2016.
  4. ^ a b c Camp, Vic (31 March 2006). "Lake Nyos (1986)". San Diego State University. Archived from the original on 21 December 2008. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
  5. ^ Smolowe, Jill; Phillips, B. J. (8 September 1986). "Cameroon the Lake of Death". TIME. Vol. 128, no. 10. pp. 34–37. Archived from the original on 27 February 2009. Retrieved 9 December 2013.
  6. ^ Ohba, Takeshi, et al. "A Depression Containing CO2-Enriched Water at the Bottom of Lake Monoun, Cameroon, and Implications for the 1984 Limnic Eruption." Frontiers in Earth Science, vol. 10, May 2022, p. 766791. DOI.org (Crossref), https://doi.org/10.3389/feart.2022.766791.
  7. ^ Cotel, Aline J. (March 1999). "A trigger mechanism for the Lake Nyos disaster". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 88 (4): 343–347. Bibcode:1999JVGR...88..343C. doi:10.1016/s0377-0273(99)00017-7. ISSN 0377-0273.
  8. ^ Rouwet, Dmitri; Tanyileke, Greg; Costa, Antonio (12 July 2016). "Cameroon's Lake Nyos Gas Burst: 30 Years Later". Eos. 97. doi:10.1029/2016eo055627. eISSN 2324-9250. ISSN 0096-3941. Archived from the original on 18 February 2022. Retrieved 18 February 2022.
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  15. ^ Witucki, Mary (2018). DISASTER RISK IN THE LAKE NYOS AREA, CAMEROON: EFFECTS OF THE GAS HAZARD AND SOCIALLY PRODUCED VULNERABILITY (PDF) (Master of Science in Geology thesis). Houghton, Michigan: Michigan Technological University. doi:10.37099/mtu.dc.etdr/758. OCLC 1150782660. S2CID 134744487. ProQuest 13422443. Archived from the original on 31 December 2023. Retrieved 31 December 2023.
  16. ^ Brown, David (1 February 2000). "Scientists hope to quiet Cameroon's killer lakes". The Seattle Times. The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 14 August 2022. Retrieved 19 December 2008.
  17. ^ a b Baxtor, Peter J.; Kapila, M.; Mfonfu, D. (27 May 1989). "Lake Nyos disaster, Cameroon, 1986: the medical effects of large scale emission of carbon dioxide?" (PDF). The BMJ. 298 (6685): 1437–1441. doi:10.1136/bmj.298.6685.1437. eISSN 1756-1833. ISSN 0959-8138. JSTOR 29704127. PMC 1836556. PMID 2502283. Archived (PDF) from the original on 18 February 2022. Retrieved 18 February 2022.
  18. ^ DeYoung, Karen (27 August 1986). "Cameroon Toll above 1500". The Washington Post. Yaounde, Cameroon. Archived from the original on 11 February 2021. Retrieved 29 May 2021.
  19. ^ A. Scarth. USGS, 1999.
  20. ^ a b c Kling, George W.; Clark, Michael A.; Compton, Harry R.; Devine, Joseph D.; Evans, William C.; Humphrey, Alan M.; Koenigsberg, Edward J.; Lockwood, John P.; Tuttle, Michele L.; Wagner, Glen N. (10 April 1987). "The 1986 Lake Nyos Gas Disaster in Cameroon, West Africa". Science. 236 (4798): 169–175. Bibcode:1987Sci...236..169K. doi:10.1126/science.236.4798.169. JSTOR 1698383. PMID 17789781. S2CID 40896330. Archived from the original on 5 June 2022. Retrieved 14 June 2022.
  21. ^ Kling, George W.; Evans, William C.; Tanyileke, Greg; Kusakabe, Minoru; Ohba, Takeshi; Yoshida, Yutaka; Hell, Joseph V. (4 October 2005). "Degassing Lakes Nyos and Monoun: Defusing certain disaster". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 102 (40): 14185–14190. doi:10.1073/pnas.0502274102. JSTOR 3376714. PMC 1242283. PMID 16186504.
  22. ^ Halbwachs, Michel; Sabroux, Jean-Christophe (20 April 2001). "Removing CO2 from Lake Nyos in Cameroon". Science. 292 (5516): 438. doi:10.1126/science.292.5516.438a. ISSN 0036-8075. JSTOR 3082763. PMID 11330293. S2CID 37879846. Archived from the original on 18 February 2022. Retrieved 18 February 2022.
  23. ^ Schmid, Martin; Halbwachs, Michel; Wüest, Alfred (1 June 2006). "Simulation of CO2 concentrations, temperature, and stratification in Lake Nyos for different degassing scenarios". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 7 (6): 1–14. Bibcode:2006GGG.....7.6019S. doi:10.1029/2005GC001164. ISSN 1525-2027. S2CID 135335849. Archived from the original on 17 August 2020. Retrieved 10 December 2019.
  24. ^ a b Halbwachs, Michel; Grangeon, Jacques; Sabroux, Jean-Christophe; Wong, Brice (c. 2001). "Degassing Lake Nyos project". mhalb.pagesperso-orange.fr. Archived from the original on 1 December 2021. Retrieved 1 January 2022.
    "January February 2001 expedition". pagesperso-orange.fr/mhalb. Archived from the original on 6 February 2009. Retrieved 22 August 2016.
  25. ^ "Le degazage du lac Nyos". Science Actualités – Ressources. Universcience.fr. Cité des sciences et de l'industrie – Paris: Expositions, conférences, cinémas, activités culturelles et sorties touristiques pour les enfants, les parents, les familles (in French). Archived from the original on 3 January 2012. Retrieved 17 October 2012.
  26. ^ Halbwachs, Michel; Sabroux, Jean-Christophe; Kayser, Gaston (2020). "Final step of the 32 year Lake Nyos degassing adventure: Natural CO2 recharge is to be balanced by discharge through the degassing pipes". Journal of African Earth Sciences. 167: 103575. Bibcode:2020JAfES.16703575H. doi:10.1016/j.jafrearsci.2019.103575. ISSN 1464-343X.
  27. ^ Schmid, Martin; Halbwachs, Michel; Wehrli, Bernhard; Wüest, Alfred (July 2005). "Weak mixing in Lake Kivu: New insights indicate increasing risk of uncontrolled gas eruption". Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems. 6 (7): Q07009. Bibcode:2005GGG.....6.7009S. doi:10.1029/2004GC000892. S2CID 67818415. Archived from the original on 25 July 2021. Retrieved 14 June 2022.
  28. ^ Bärenbold, Fabian; Boehrer, Bertram; Grilli, Roberto; Mugisha, Ange; von Tümpling, Wolf; Umutoni, Augusta; Schmid, Martin (25 August 2020). "No Increasing Risk of a Limnic Eruption at Lake Kivu: Intercomparison Study Reveals Gas Concentrations Close to Steady State". PLoS One. 15 (8): 11. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1537836B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0237836. PMC 7446963. PMID 32841245. S2CID 221325800.
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