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LGBTQ history in Iran

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The history of LGBT people in Iran spans thousands of years. Homosexuality has been viewed as a sin in Islam, and is outlawed in almost all Muslim-majority countries, including Iran. In pre-Islamic Iran, a tradition of homosexuality existed, however most were intolerant of pederasty and sexual activity between two men, especially the Zoroastrians. According to Ammianus Marcellinus, Iranians were “far from immoral relations with boys”.[1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][excessive citations]

Janet Afary, a prominent Iranian American scholar in exile and a professor at Purdue University. Her book, *Foucault and the Iranian Revolution: Gender and the Seductions of Islam* (co-authored with Kevin Anderson, University of Chicago Press), features a notable chapter on same-sex relations in Iran. In this chapter, Afary argues that the current regime in the Islamic Republic of Iran is suppressing a long-standing tradition of homosexual culture that dates back over a thousand years. Afary is also working on a comprehensive history of sexuality in Iran.[16] She points out that classical Persian literature, including the works of poets like Attar, Rumi, Sa'di, Hafez, Jami, and even Iraj Mirza in the 20th century, is filled with references to homoeroticism and openly discusses beautiful young boys and the practice of pederasty (not to be confused with homosexuality between adult men).[16] Many of the famous love stories celebrated by these poets were between kings and their male servants or slaves. Sometimes, the beloved was the possession of a more powerful individual.[16] Outside of royal courts, homosexuality and homoerotic expressions were accepted in various public settings, including monasteries, seminaries, taverns, military camps, bathhouses, and coffee houses.[16] During the early Safavid period, male houses of prostitution were legally recognized and even paid taxes.[16]

Beginning in the mid-1980s, with the Islamic Government in power, as many as 7,000 homosexuals were hanged, shot, stoned, or burnt to death. Since the Iranian revolution in 1979, the punishment for homosexuality has been based on Sharia law, with the maximum penalty being death. Transgender people have never been officially addressed by the government leading up to the 1979 revolution, but, after the Islamic Revolution sex reassignment surgery has been allowed through Islamic Law.[17] The government provides up to half the cost of the procedure for those needing financial assistance, upon the provision of necessary documents and supporting proof of an identity disorder.[18][19]

Pre-Islamic period

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Ancient Iranian society had a tradition of polytheism and pederasty, which came into sharp conflict during the Achaemenid period. Iranian pederasty and its origins were debated even in ancient times – for example, Herodotus claimed they had learned it from the Greeks: "From the Greeks they have learned to lie with boys."[20] However, Plutarch asserts that the Iranians used eunuch boys to that end long before contact between the cultures. [21] In either case, Plato claimed they saw fit to forbid it to the inhabitants of the lands they occupied, since "It does not suit the rulers that their subjects should think noble thoughts, nor that they should form the strong friendships and attachments which these activities, and in particular love, tend to produce."[22]

Sextus Empiricus writing in his "Outlines of Scepticism" (circa C.E 200) asserted that the laws of the Persians were tolerant of homosexual behavior, and the men "indulge in intercourse with males" (1:152)[23]

Around 250 BCE, during the Parthian Empire, the Zoroastrian text, the Vendidad, was written. It contains provisions that are part of sexual code promoting procreative sexuality that is interpreted to prohibit same-sex intercourse as a form of demon worship, and thus sinful. Ancient commentary on this passage suggests that those engaging in sodomy could be killed without permission from the Dastur. However, a strong homosexual tradition in Iran is attested to by Greek historians from the 5th century onward, and so the prohibition apparently had little effect on Iranian attitudes or sexual behavior outside the ranks of devout Zoroastrians in rural eastern Iran.[24][25][26][27][28]

Islamic period

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Shah Abbas of Iran with a page (1627).
Two males engaging in anal sex. Watercolour on paper. From Iran 1880 - 1926
Two men engaging in anal sex. Watercolour on paper. From Iran 1880 - 1926
Main article: Homosexuality and Islam

There is a significant amount of Persian literature that explicitly illustrates the ancient existence of homosexuality among Iranians.[29] In Persian poetry, references to sexual love can be found in addition to those of spiritual/religious love. More ghazals (love poems) and texts in Saadi's Bustan and Gulistan portray love between males than between male and female. In some poems, Sa'di's beloved is a young man, not a beautiful woman.[30]

Safavid Era

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European travelers remarked on the taste that Shah Abbas of Iran (1588–1629) had for wine and festivities, but also for charming pages and cup bearers. A painting by Riza Abbasi with homo-erotic qualities shows the ruler enjoying such delights.[31]

Pre-modern homosexuality

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Throughout his study historian Khaled El-Rouayheb has argued that same sex relations during the Islamic period contrasts from what is considered modern day homosexuality. His argument supports the notion of homosexuality as a concept that was only recently established as an identity.

The act of penetration between two men was previously regarded as an act of dominance rather than a sexual act - with one person presiding dominance over the other. The individual dominating the other person would be considered active and the other passive. Sexual acts involving individuals of the same sex were understood through the concept of passive and active participants rather than by gender. The man that was considered the passive participant was deplored due to it being seen as the more feminine role in comparison to the active participant who would be seen as more masculine and dominating.[32]

A shift in the view of same-sex relation emerged during the nineteenth century. European influence created a separate narrative of what was considered homosexuality which resulted in Iran rejecting the idea of homosexuality altogether and embracing the concept of homosociality. Even still, this concept that men were participating in sexual practices with other men was still prevalent and seen as an act rather than a characteristic.[33]

20th century Iran

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Qajarite Era

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In 1914, Magnus Hirschfeld wrote that "sodomy, tribadism" was punishable with capital punishment under the Sublime State of Persia under "Shiite religious laws", however in the case of women, this only applied with the fourth convictions, the other previous three convictions received 100 lashes. Although he also stated that "In recent years, the religious penal code has been implemented very negligently in practice. No one at the German embassy has heard about a conviction as a result of the crime in question."[34]

Pahlavi Era

[edit]

Under the rule of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, the last monarch of the Pahlavi dynasty, homosexuality was tolerated, even to the point of allowing news coverage of a same-sex wedding.[16] In the late 1970s, some Iranians even began to talk about starting up a gay rights organization, similar to the Gay Liberation movement. Until the revolution, there were some night clubs in which gay behavior was tolerated. During the Shah's time, however, homosexuality was still taboo everywhere, and often one could not turn to family or friends for support and guidance. There were no public agencies to assist youth or people who were confused or questioning their sexuality:[citation needed]

Due to the fact “Classical Persian literature—like the poems of Attar (died 1220), Rumi (d. 1273), Sa’di (d. 1291), Hafez (d. 1389), Jami (d. 1492), and even those of the 20th century Iraj Mirza (d. 1926)—were replete with homoerotic allusions and pederasty,[16] Ahmad Kasravi and others, such as Iraj Mirza, opposed homosexuality and initiated a movement against it.[35] Kasravi later published the text of his speeches in Peyman magazine.[35] He criticized classical Persian poets like Khayyam, Rumi, Saadi, and Hafez, and was one of the people who demanded the removal of these poets' works from textbooks.[35] However, during the Pahlavi dynasty, Janet Afary mentions in an interview that literature professors have been compelled to claim that these incredibly beautiful love poems, which clearly express same-sex affection, are not actually about homosexuality. Instead, they are taught as metaphors for love between men and women, despite the explicit references to same-sex relationships.[16]

Ernest Perron, a Swiss national and one of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi's closest and dearest friends, who met him in Switzerland and was his closest friend for 20 years, was homosexual. Reza Shah, who desired to raise his crown prince in a masculine manner and was very watchful of his behavior, became angry at his return to Iran accompanied by a homosexual.[36]

Among the architects and designers who assisted the Shahbanu in decorating the palace, Bijan Safari and Keyvan Khosravani were openly homosexual, yet they were constant companions of the royal family, indicating the level of sensitivity of the Shah and his wife, Farah Diba.[36]

Janet Afary has argued that the 1979 revolution was partly motivated by moral outrage against the Shah's regime, and in particular against a mock same-sex wedding between two young men with ties to the court. She says that this explains the virulence of the anti-homosexual oppression in Iran.[16]

Reza Pahlavi, Crown Prince and the son of Shah Mohammed Reza, argued that LGBT individuals had freedom before the “Mullah Regime” (the 1979 revolution).[37]

Islamic Republic of Iran

[edit]

After the creation of the Islamic Republic of Iran, thousands of people were executed in public, including homosexuals. On September 12, 1979, Oriana Fallaci, Italian journalist, interviewed Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. She asked him if it was right to shoot homosexuals. He responded that some societies "where men are permitted to give themselves to satisfy other men's desires", and that "the society that we want to build does not permit such things. When she responded about the "boy they shot yesterday, for sodomy.", he responded "Corruption, corruption. We have to eliminate corruption." A 1987 report of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights estimated that as many as 7,000 people were shot, hanged, stoned or burned to death after the 1979 revolution.[38][39]

The new religious government that came to be established after the 1979 Iranian Revolution classed transsexuals and transvestites with gays and lesbians, who were condemned by Islam and faced the punishment of lashing and death under Iran's penal code. In 1986, transsexuals were re-classified as being "heterosexual".

Since the 1979 Iranian revolution, the legal code has been based on Islamic Shari'a law. All sexual relations that occur outside a traditional, heterosexual marriage (i.e. sodomy or adultery) are illegal and no legal distinction is made between consensual or non-consensual sodomy. Homosexual relations that occur between consenting adults in private are a crime and carry a maximum punishment of death. Forced homosexual relations (rape) often results in execution. The death penalty is legal for those above 18, and if a murder was committed, legal at the age of 15. (see Mahmoud Asgari and Ayaz Marhoni whose ages were raised to 19 in court transcripts). Approved by the Iranian Parliament on July 30, 1991, and finally ratified by the Guardian Council on November 28, 1991, articles 108 through 140 distinctly talk about homosexuality and its punishments in detail.[40]

On August 11, 2005, a series of coordinated protests took place across France, Ireland, the United Kingdom, and other locations in response to the hangings of Ayaz Marhoni, 18, and Mahmoud Asgari, who was reported to be either 16 or 17 years old.[16]

Amid the controversy surrounding official claims that the executed youths had sexually assaulted a 13-year-old boy, Afdhere Jama, editor of Huriyah, a digital magazine for Queer Muslims, stated that his contacts in Iran confirmed that the two young men hanged in Mashhad were lovers.[16]

“When I first learned about the situation, I reached out to my Iranian contacts from Huriyah,” Jama explained. “Everyone agreed that these boys were murdered for being queer. One contact who had attended gay parties in Mashhad insisted that the boys were long-term partners, and another source revealed that a family member of one of the boys outed the couple.”[16]

On September 24, 2007, while speaking at Columbia University, Iranian President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad said, in answer to the question "Iranian women are now denied basic human rights and your government has imposed draconian punishments including execution on Iranian citizens who are homosexuals. Why are you doing those things?", "We don't have homosexuals, like in your country. I don't know who told you that."[41] An aide later said that he was misquoted and was actually saying that "compared to American society, we don't have many homosexuals". The aide further clarified that "because of historical, religious and cultural differences homosexuality is less common in Iran and the Islamic world than in the West".[42] A book on this topic is Women with mustaches and men without beards: gender and sexual anxieties of Iranian modernity by Afsaneh Najmabadi.[43]

In May 2021, a tragic case of homophobic violence occurred near the city of Ahvaz in Iran's Khuzestan Province, where a 20-year-old Iranian man was kidnapped and decapitated by his half-brother and two cousins due to his sexual orientation. The victim, Ali "Alireza" Fazeli Monfared, became a symbol of the brutal consequences of homophobia in Iran. His death sparked widespread attention on social media, leading activists and celebrities to call for greater action against the persecution of LGBT+ individuals under the Islamic Republic.[44][45][46]

Transgender rights

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Main article: Transgender rights in Iran

One early campaigner for transsexual rights is Maryam Hatoon Molkara. Before the revolution, she had longed to transition physically to female but could not afford surgery. Furthermore, she wanted religious authorization. Since 1975, she had been writing letters to Ayatollah Khomeini, who was to become the leader of the revolution and was in exile. After the revolution, she was fired, forcedly injected with testosterone, and institutionalized. She was later released with help from her connection, and she kept lobbying many other leaders. Later she went to see Khomeini, who had returned to Iran. At first she was stopped and beaten by his guards, but eventually, Khomeini gave her a letter to authorize her sex reassignment operation. The letter is later known as the fatwa that authorizes such operations in Iran.[47][48][49][50][51][52] The advancement of trans rights and the legal status of trans-identified individuals in Iran was pivoted by Maryam Hatoon Molkara by not only by securing the fatwa for herself, but for the other trans people in Iran.

The Legal Medicine Organization of Iran made available certifications to transgender people. This led to opportunities for trans identified people to gain authorization for gender change surgery, hormonal procedures, health insurance, aid with financial and social issues, and new identification records. Nonetheless, those who have undergone gender reassignment surgery experience exclusion in society, discrimination, possible rejection from family members, gender-based violence, and issues with employment. These issues have often led to the higher rate of homelessness and substance abuse within the trans community. Although the illegality of same-sex intercourse and activities had not been thoroughly addressed, the legal differences between the LGB and trans-identified Iranians are critical. Gaining social acceptance for the entire LGBT community as a whole was not of priority for government officials in Iran. Since same-sex conduct is criminalized, gender reassignment surgery became state-sanctioned as the cure for homosexuality, heteronormalizing people who have same-sex desires or engage in same-sex practices. Historian Afsaneh Najmabadi has articulated concerns that LGB identified persons have been encouraged to have gender reassignment surgery done to be socially accepted in Iran. Progressive actions for the trans community in Iran have led to social and legal isolation, institutional violence, and oppression for LGBT members who don't identify as transgender.[53]

Notable people

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  • Keyvan Khosrovani: Iranian architect, lighting designer, fashion designer and couturier.[54][55][56] He was born in Tehran, and resides in Paris since 1978. He served as the fashion designer for Shahbanu Farah Pahlavi in the 1970s, and founded the Farah Pahlavi Foundation.[57] Was known to be Gay.[36]
  • Freddie Mercury (Farrokh Bulsara): Lead singer of the legendary rock band Queen, born to Parsi parents from Gujarat, India, which has roots connected to the broader Iranian Zoroastrian community. Freddie Mercury is one of the most iconic figures in rock music history and is celebrated for his powerful voice and flamboyant stage presence.
  • Arsham Parsi: An Iranian LGBT+ activist and founder of the Iranian Railroad for Queer Refugees (IRQR), which assists LGBT+ refugees from Iran. He has been a vocal advocate for LGBT+ rights, especially for Iranian refugees fleeing persecution.
  • Shadi Amin: An Iranian LGBT+ rights activist, writer, and researcher based in Germany. Amin is also a co-founder of the Iranian Lesbian and Transgender Network (6Rang), which advocates for the rights of LGBT+ individuals, particularly Iranian lesbians and transgender people.
  • Maryam Hatoon Molkara: An Iranian trans rights activist who played a crucial role in convincing the Iranian government to allow sex reassignment surgery. Her advocacy helped set a precedent in Iran, leading to a legal pathway for transgender individuals to undergo surgery.
  • Nemat Sadat: An Afghan-Iranian journalist, writer, and LGBT+ activist who came out as gay in 2013. He is a vocal advocate for LGBT+ rights in the Middle East and South Asia and has written extensively about being a gay Afghan living in exile.
  • Mehrdad Afsari: An Iranian artist and photographer known for his work exploring identity and sexuality. He has used his art to challenge social norms regarding gender and sexual orientation in Iranian society.
  • Golnar Khosrowshahi: Founder and CEO of Reservoir Media, a music publishing company. While not directly known for activism, she is a successful businesswoman with Iranian ancestry who identifies as part of the LGBT+ community.
  • Ali Rezai: An Iranian activist who has publicly spoken out about the challenges facing LGBT+ individuals in Iran. He fled Iran and sought asylum in Canada, where he continues to advocate for LGBT+ rights.
  • Elham Malekpoor Arashlu: She lives in the Netherlands and works as an LGBT rights activist, writer, and poet.

See also

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References

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  1. ^ The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus: During the Reigns of the Emperors Constantius, Julian, Jovianus, Valentinian, and Valens>Ammianus Marcellinus. "The Roman History of Ammianus Marcellinus". uchicago.edu. Retrieved 15 June 2021.
  2. ^ R. Syme, Ammianus and the Historia Augusta, Oxford, 1968.
  3. ^ A. Klotz, “Die Quellen Ammianus in der Darstellung von Julians Perserzug,” Rheinisches Museum für Philologie71, 1916.
  4. ^ L. Dillemann, “Ammien Marcellin et les pays du Tigre et de l’Euphrate,” Syria 28, 1961, pp. 87-158.
  5. ^ G. A. Crump, Ammianus Marcellinus as a Military Historian, Wiesbaden, 1975.
  6. ^ H. T. Rowell, Ammianus Marcellinus, Soldier-Historian of the Late Roman Empire, Cincinnati, 1964.
  7. ^ A. H. M. Jones, The Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire I, Cambridge, 1971, pp. 547-48.
  8. ^ E. A. Thompson, The Historical Work of Ammianus Marcellinus, Cambridge, 1947.
  9. ^ G. B. Pighi, “Studia Ammianea. Annotationes criticae et grammaticae,” Pubblicazioni Università cattolica del Sacro Cuore 20, Milan, 1935.
  10. ^ Idem, “Nuovi Studi Ammianei,” ibid., 21, 1936.
  11. ^ T. Mommsen, “Ammians Geographica,” Gesammelte Schriften 7, Berlin, 1909, p. 393.
  12. ^ L. Dautremer, “Ammien Marcellin,” Travaux et Mémoires de l’Université de Lille 7, Mém. 23, 1899.
  13. ^ Idem, “Zur Chronologie und Quellenkunde des Ammianus Marcellinus,” Hermes 40, 1914.
  14. ^ O. Seeck, “Ammianus” (Nr. 4), Pauly-Wissowa, I, 1894, cols. 1845-52.
  15. ^ M. Fuhrmann, “Ammianus Marcellinus,” Der Kleine Pauly I, 1964, cols. 302-04.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Ireland, Doug (August 2005). "Iranian Sources Question Rape Charges in Teen Executions". Gay City News. Archived from the original on July 23, 2013. Retrieved April 8, 2021.
  17. ^ Saeidzadeh, Zara (27 October 2016). "Transsexuality in Contemporary Iran: Legal and Social Misrecognition". Feminist Legal Studies. 24 (3): 249. doi:10.1007/s10691-016-9332-x. S2CID 254508282.
  18. ^ Khoshnood, K.; Hashemian, F.; Moshtagh, N.; Eftekahri, M.; Setayesh, S. (2008). "T03-O-08 Social stigma, homosexuality and transsexuality in Iran". Sexologies. 17: S69. doi:10.1016/s1158-1360(08)72705-1. ISSN 1158-1360.
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  20. ^ David Grene, Herodotus, p.156, 1987
  21. ^ Gebundene Ausgabe, Plutarch: Malice of Herodotos (Aris & Phillips Classical Texts), 1992, p. 31.
  22. ^ Tom Griffith (Translator), Symposium of Plato, 1993, p112
  23. ^ Julia Annas (ed), Sextus Empiricus: Outlines of Scepticism, University of Cambridge Press, 2000, p76
  24. ^ Ervad Behramshah Hormusji Bharda (1990). "The Importance of Vendidad in the Zarathushti Religion". tenets.zoroastrianism.com. Retrieved 3 January 2015.
  25. ^ Ervad Marzban Hathiram. "Significance and Philosophy of the Vendidad" (PDF). frashogard.com. Retrieved 3 January 2015.
  26. ^ "Ranghaya, Sixteenth Vendidad Nation & Western Aryan Lands". heritageinstitute.com. Heritage Institute. Retrieved 3 January 2015.
  27. ^ Jones, Lesley-Ann (2011-10-13). Freddie Mercury: The Definitive Biography: The Definitive Biography. Hachette UK, 2011. p. 28. ISBN 9781444733709. Retrieved 3 January 2015. In the sacred Zoroastrian text[,] the Vendidad, it is stated: 'The man that lies with mankind as man lies with womankind, or as woman lies with mankind, is a man that is a Daeva (demon): this man is a worshipper of the Daevas, a male paramour of the Daevas
  28. ^ Darmesteter, James (1898). Sacred Books of the East (American ed.). Vd 8:32. Retrieved 3 January 2015. Ahura Mazda answered: 'The man that lies with mankind as man lies with womankind, or as woman lies with mankind, is the man that is a Daeva; this one is the man that is a worshipper of the Daevas, that is a male paramour of the Daevas, that is a female paramour of the Daevas, that is a wife to the Daeva; this is the man that is as bad as a Daeva, that is in his whole being a Daeva; this is the man that is a Daeva before he dies, and becomes one of the unseen Daevas after death: so is he, whether he has lain with mankind as mankind, or as womankind. The guilty may be killed by any one, without an order from the Dastur (see § 74 n.), and by this execution an ordinary capital crime may be redeemed.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link) CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  29. ^ "Middle Eastern Literature: Persian". glbtq. Archived from the original on October 4, 2009. Retrieved October 22, 2010.
  30. ^ Liukkonen, Petri. "Sa'di". Books and Writers (kirjasto.sci.fi). Finland: Kuusankoski Public Library. Archived from the original on May 30, 2012.
  31. ^ Welch A., "Worldly and Otherworldly Love in Safavi Painting", Persian Painting from the Mongols to the Qajars, Éditions R. Hillenbrand, Londres, 2000, p. 303 et p. 309.
  32. ^ El-Rouayheb, Khaled (2005). Before Homosexuality in the Arab-Islamic World, 1500-1800. University of Chicago Press. doi:10.7208/chicago/9780226729909.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-226-72989-3.
  33. ^ Najmabadi, Afsaneh (2005-01-01). "Mapping Transformations of Sex, Gender, and Sexuality in Modern Iran". Social Analysis. 49 (2). doi:10.3167/015597705780886266. ISSN 0155-977X.
  34. ^ Hirschfeld, Magnus. Die Homosexualität des Mannes und des Weibes. Berlin: L. Marcus, 1914. Print.
  35. ^ a b c "BBC ‮فارسی‬ - ‮ايران‬ - ‮روشنفکران و هنجارهای جدید جنسی‬". www.bbc.com (in Persian). Retrieved 2024-09-30.
  36. ^ a b c Milani, Abbas. The Shah. pp. 49–48, 344. ISBN 9781403971937.
  37. ^ "شاهزاده رضا پهلوی: اقلیت‌های جنسی و جنسیتی در ایران پیش از «رژیم ملاها» آزادی داشتند" [Prince Reza Pahlavi: Sexual and gender minorities in Iran had freedom before the “Mullah regime.”]. ir.voanews.com (in Persian). Archived from the original on 2024-10-04. Retrieved 2024-10-03.
  38. ^ Anderson, Raymond H. (June 4, 1989). "Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, 89, the Unwavering Iranian Spiritual Leader". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 26, 2021. Retrieved April 8, 2021.
  39. ^ "An Interview With KHOMEINI". The New York Times. October 7, 1979. Retrieved April 8, 2021.
  40. ^ "Iranian Penal Code" (PDF). 1996. p. 4. Retrieved April 8, 2021.
  41. ^ "Ahmadinejad speaks; outrage and controversy follow". CNN. September 24, 2007. Archived from the original on November 6, 2015. Retrieved April 8, 2021.
  42. ^ "President misquoted over gays in Iran: aide | International". Reuters. October 10, 2007. Retrieved October 22, 2010.
  43. ^ Najmabadi, Afsaneh (April 2005). Women with Mustaches and Men with Beards: Gender and Sexual Anxieties of Iranian Modernity. Univ of California Press. ISBN 9780520242630. Retrieved April 8, 2021.
  44. ^ Yurcaba, Jo (May 11, 2021). "Gay Iranian man dead in alleged 'honor killing,' rights group says". NBC News. Retrieved May 26, 2021.
  45. ^ Esfandiari, Golnaz (May 11, 2021). "Horrific Killing Of Young Gay Man Puts Plight Of Iran's LGBT Community In Spotlight". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. Retrieved May 26, 2021.
  46. ^ Gul Tuysuz (2021-05-15). "A card exempted a gay man from serving in Iran's military. It may have cost him his life". CNN. Retrieved 2021-07-22.
  47. ^ Tait, Robert (July 28, 2005). "A fatwa for transsexuals". Salon. Archived from the original on June 6, 2011. Retrieved April 8, 2021.
  48. ^ Tait, Robert (July 27, 2005). "A Fatwa for Freedom". The Guardian. Retrieved April 8, 2021.
  49. ^ Harrison, Frances (January 5, 2005). "Iran's sex-change operations". BBC. Retrieved April 8, 2021.
  50. ^ UNHCR, Iran Country Report Archived 2004-05-23 at the Wayback Machine, 7th European Country of Origin Information Seminar Berlin, June 11–12, 2001 – Final report. Transsexual part is on pp. 104.
  51. ^ ^ Safra Project Country Information Report Iran Archived 2012-09-16 at the Wayback Machine.
  52. ^ 2004 report, and consider UNHCR report underestimate the pressure. Mentions gender diversity on pp, 15.
  53. ^ "With Shoes Tied Around My Neck - astrophysics". doczz.net. Retrieved 2022-12-19.
  54. ^ Hansen, Suzy (2013-12-21). "The Slow Disappearance of Queen Fawzia, The Lives They Lived". The New York Times. Retrieved 2024-08-27.
  55. ^ "Iranian designer carries out his "mission"". The Salina Journal (Salina, Kansas). 1976-06-27. Retrieved 2024-08-27 – via Newspapers.com.
  56. ^ "چهره‌ها و گفتگوها - کیوان خسروانی: "من گوسفند سیاه هزار فامیل بودم"" [Keyvan Khosravani: "I was the black sheep of a thousand families"]. ار.اف.ای - RFI (in Persian). 2015-10-18. Retrieved 2024-08-27.
  57. ^ "کیوان خسروانی؛ چهره برجسته جامعه رنگین‌کمانی و از موسسان بنیاد فرح پهلوی" [Keyvan Khosravani; A prominent figure of the Rainbow community and one of the founders of the Farah Pahlavi Foundation]. IranWire (in Persian).
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