Jump to content

Ketamine in society and culture

Add links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Ketamine has had a wide variety of medicinal and recreational uses since its discovery in 1962.

Generic names

[edit]

Ketamine is the English generic name of the drug and its INNTooltip International Nonproprietary Name and BANTooltip British Approved Name, while ketamine hydrochloride is its USANTooltip United States Adopted Name, USPTooltip United States Pharmacopeia, BANMTooltip British Approved Name, and JANTooltip Japanese Accepted Name.[1][2][3] Its generic name in Spanish and Italian and its DCITTooltip Denominazione Comune Italiana are ketamina, in French and its DCFTooltip Dénomination Commune Française are kétamine, in German is Ketamin, and in Latin is ketaminum.[2]

The S(+) stereoisomer of ketamine is known as esketamine, and this is its BANTooltip British Approved Name while esketamine hydrochloride is its BANMTooltip British Approved Name.[4]

Brand names

[edit]

Ketamine is sold throughout the world primarily under the brand name Ketalar.[2][3] It is also marketed under a variety of other brand names, including Calypsol, Ketamin, Ketamina, Ketamine, Ketaminol, Ketanest, Ketaset, Tekam, and Vetalar among others.[2][3]

Esketamine is sold mainly under the brand names Ketanest, Ketanest-S, and Spravato.[4]

Ketamine clinics

[edit]

After the publication of the NIH-run antidepressant clinical trial, clinics began opening in which the intravenous ketamine is given for depression.[5][6] This practice is an off label use of IV ketamine in the United States, though the intranasal version of esketamine has been approved by the FDA for treatment of depression[5][7] In 2015 there were about 60 such clinics in the US; the procedure was not covered by insurance, and people paid between $400 and $1700 out of pocket for a treatment.[8] It was estimated in 2018 that there were approximately 300 of these clinics.[9] The number of clinics has been increasing rapidly.[9]

A chain of such clinics in Australia, run by Aura Medical Corporation, was closed down by regulatory authorities in 2015. They found that the clinics' marketing was not supported by scientific research and the chain sent patients home with ketamine and needles to administer infusions to themselves.[10]

[edit]

While ketamine is legally marketed in many countries worldwide,[2] it is also a controlled substance in many countries.[11]

Australia

[edit]

In Australia, ketamine is listed as a schedule 8-controlled drug under the Poisons Standard (October 2015).[12] Schedule 8 drugs are outlined in the Poisons Act 1964 as "Substances which should be available for use but require restriction of manufacture, supply, distribution, possession and use to reduce abuse, misuse and physical or psychological dependence."[13]

Canada

[edit]

In Canada, ketamine has been classified since 2005 as a Schedule I narcotic.[14]

Hong Kong

[edit]

In Hong Kong, since 2000, ketamine has been regulated under Schedule 1 of Hong Kong Chapter 134 Dangerous Drugs Ordinance. It can be used legally only by health professionals, for university research purposes, or with a physician's prescription.[15][16]

Taiwan

[edit]

By 2002, ketamine was classified as class III in Taiwan; given the recent rise of its prevalence in East Asia, however, rescheduling into class I or II is being considered.[17][18]

India

[edit]

In December 2013, the government of India, in response to rising recreational use and the use of ketamine as a date rape drug, has added it to Schedule X of the Drug and Cosmetics Act, requiring a special license for sale and maintenance for two years of records of all sales.[19][20]

United Kingdom

[edit]

In the United Kingdom, it became labeled a Class C drug on 1 January 2006.[17][21] On 10 December 2013, the UK Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD) recommended that the government reclassify ketamine to become a Class B drug.[22] On 12 February 2014 the Home Office announced it would follow this advice "in light of the evidence of chronic harms associated with ketamine use, including chronic bladder and other urinary tract damage".[23][24]

The UK Minister of State for Crime Prevention, Norman Baker, responding to the ACMD's advice, said the issue of ketamine's rescheduling for medical and veterinary use would be addressed "separately to allow for a period of consultation".[23]

United States

[edit]

Because of the increase in recreational use, ketamine was placed in Schedule III of the United States Controlled Substance Act in August 1999.[25]

Recreational use

[edit]
Ketamine solution poured onto glass and left to dry

Recreational use of ketamine was documented in the early 1970s in underground literature (e.g., The Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers).[26] It was used in psychiatric and other academic research through the 1970s, culminating in 1978 with the publishing of psychonaut John Lilly's The Scientist, and Marcia Moore and Howard Alltounian's Journeys into the Bright World, which documented the unusual phenomenology of ketamine intoxication.[27] The incidence of non-medical ketamine use increased through the end of the century, especially in the context of raves and other parties.[28][29][30][31][32] Its emergence as a club drug differs from other club drugs (e.g., MDMA), however, due to its anesthetic properties (e.g., slurred speech, immobilization) at higher doses;[32] in addition, reports are common of ketamine being sold as "ecstasy".[33] In the 1993 book E for Ecstasy[34] (about the uses of the street drug Ecstasy in the UK), the writer, activist, and ecstasy advocate Nicholas Saunders highlighted test results showing that certain consignments of the drug also contained ketamine. Consignments of ecstasy known as "strawberry" contained what Saunders described as a "potentially dangerous combination of ketamine, ephedrine, and selegiline", as did a consignment of "Sitting Duck" ecstasy tablets.[35]

The use of ketamine as part of a "post-clubbing experience" has also been documented.[36] Ketamine's rise in the dance culture was most rapid in Hong Kong by the end of the 1990s.[32]

Ketamine use as a recreational drug has been implicated in deaths globally, with more than 90 deaths in England and Wales in the years of 2005–2013.[37] They include accidental poisonings, drownings, traffic accidents, and suicides.[37] The majority of deaths were among young people.[38] This has led to increased regulation (e.g., upgrading ketamine from a Class C to a Class B banned substance in the U.K.).[39]

Unlike the other well-known dissociatives phencyclidine (PCP) and dextromethorphan (DXM), ketamine is very short-acting. It takes effect within about 10 minutes,[40] while its hallucinogenic effects last 60 minutes when insufflated or injected, and up to two hours when ingested orally.[41]

At subanesthetic doses—under-dosaged from a medical point of view—ketamine produces a dissociative state, characterised by a sense of detachment from one's physical body and the external world which is known as depersonalization and derealization.[42] At sufficiently high doses, users may experience what is called the "K-hole", a state of dissociation with visual and auditory hallucinations.[43] John C. Lilly, Marcia Moore, D. M. Turner and David Woodard (amongst others) have written extensively about their own entheogenic use of, and psychonautic experiences with, ketamine.[44] Turner died prematurely due to drowning during presumed unsupervised ketamine use.[45] In 2006 the Russian edition of Adam Parfrey's Apocalypse Culture II was banned and destroyed by authorities owing to its inclusion of an essay by Woodard about the entheogenic use of, and psychonautic experiences with, ketamine.[46]: 288–295 

Because of its ability to cause confusion and amnesia, ketamine has been used for date rape.[40][47]

Slang terms

[edit]

Production for recreational use has been traced to 1967, when it was referred to as "mean green" and "rockmesc".[48] Recreational names for ketamine include "Special K",[49] "K",[50][49] "Kitty", "Ket",[51] "K2",[50] "Vitamin K",[49][51] "Super K",[49] "Jet",[49][52] "Super acid",[49] "Mauve",[49] "Special LA coke",[49] "Purple",[49] "Cat Valium",[52][53] "Keller",[53] "Kelly's Day",[53] "New ecstasy",[54] "Psychedelic heroin",[54] "bump",[55] "Majestic".[56] A mixture of ketamine with cocaine is called "Calvin Klein" or "CK1".[57] In Hong Kong, where illicit use of the drug is popular, ketamine is colloquially referred to as "kai-jai".[32]

Usage

[edit]

North America

[edit]

According to the ongoing Monitoring the Future study conducted by University of Michigan, prevalence rates of recreational ketamine use among American secondary school students (grades 8, 10, and 12) have varied between 0.8 and 2.5% since 1999, with recent rates at the lower end of this range.[58] The 2006 National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) reports a rate of 0.1% for persons ages 12 or older with the highest rate (0.2%) in those ages 18–25.[59] Further, 203,000 people are estimated to have used ketamine in 2006, and an estimated 2.3 million people used ketamine at least once in their life.[59] A total of 529 emergency department visits in 2009 were ketamine-related.[60]

In 2003, the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration conducted Operation TKO, a probe into the quality of ketamine being imported from Mexico.[61] As a result of operation TKO, U.S. and Mexican authorities shut down the Mexico City company Laboratorios Ttokkyo, which was the biggest producer of ketamine in Mexico. According to the DEA, over 80% of ketamine seized in the United States is of Mexican origin. As of 2011, it was mostly shipped from places like India, as cheap in cost as $5/gram.[61] The World Health Organization Expert Committee on Drug Dependence, in its thirty-third report (2003),[62] recommended research into ketamine's recreational use due to growing concerns about its rising popularity in Europe, Asia, and North America.

Europe

[edit]

Cases of ketamine use in club venues have been observed in the Czech Republic, France, Italy, Hungary, The Netherlands, and the United Kingdom.[63] Additional reports of use and dependence have been reported in Poland and Portugal.[64][65]

Australia

[edit]

Australia's 2019 National Drug Strategy Household Survey report shows a prevalence of recent ketamine use of 0.3% in 2004, 0.2% in 2007 and 2010, 0.4% in 2016 and 0.9% in 2019 in persons aged 14 or older.[66]

Asia

[edit]

In China, the small village of Boshe in eastern Guangdong was confirmed as a main production centre in 2013 when it was raided.[67]

Established by the Hong Kong Narcotics Division of the Security Bureau, the Central Registry of Drug Abuse (CRDA) maintains a database of all the illicit drug users who have come into contact with law enforcement, treatment, health care, and social organizations. The compiled data are confidential under The Dangerous Drugs Ordinance of Hong Kong, and statistics are made freely available online on a quarterly basis.[68][69] Statistics from the CRDA show that the number of ketamine users (all ages) in Hong Kong has increased from 1605 (9.8% of total drug users) in 2000 to 5212 (37.6%) in 2009.[70] Increasing trends of ketamine use among illicit drug users under the age of 21 were also reported, rising from 36.9% of young drug users in 2000 to 84.3% in 2009.[70]

A survey conducted among school-attending Taiwanese adolescents reported prevalence rates of 0.15% in 2004, 0.18% in 2005, and 0.15% in 2006 in middle-school (grades 7 and 9) students; in Taiwanese high-school (grades 10 and 12) students, prevalence was 1.13% in 2004, 0.66% in 2005, and 0.44% in 2006.[71] From the same survey, a large portion (42.8%) of those who reported ecstasy use also reported ketamine use.[71] Ketamine was the second-most used illicit drug (behind ecstasy) in absconding Taiwanese adolescents as reported by a multi-city street outreach survey.[72] In a study comparing the reporting rates between web questionnaires and paper-and-pencil questionnaires, ketamine use was reported a higher rate in the web version.[73] Urine samples taken at a club in Taipei, Taiwan, showed high rates of ketamine use at 47.0%; this prevalence was compared with that of detainees suspected of recreational drug use in the general public, of which 2.0% of the samples tested positive for ketamine use.[74]

Law enforcement

[edit]

In the late 2010s and early 2020s, law enforcement agencies in some U.S. states began directing paramedics to use ketamine to sedate people under arrest, sometimes under the auspices of treatment for the controversial diagnosis "excited delirium".[75][76][77][78][79][80] The American Society of Anesthesiologists and American College of Emergency Physicians oppose the use of ketamine or any similar agent to incapacitate someone solely for a law enforcement purpose.[81]

Use in humor and internet memes

[edit]

A joke about ketamine and the Lego Star Wars minifigure Yoda has become a popular internet meme. The joke revolves around the character having a perceived addiction to the drug and killing people with the car Honda Civic. It derives from a cabrio car playable in the 2007 cult classic video game Lego Star Wars: The Complete Saga's "Lego City" bonus level.[82]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Elks J (14 November 2014). The Dictionary of Drugs: Chemical Data: Chemical Data, Structures and Bibliographies. Springer. pp. 258–. ISBN 978-1-4757-2085-3. Archived from the original on 15 February 2017.
  2. ^ a b c d e Index Nominum 2000: International Drug Directory. Taylor & Francis. 2000. pp. 584–585. ISBN 978-3-88763-075-1.
  3. ^ a b c Morton IK, Hall JM (6 December 2012). Concise Dictionary of Pharmacological Agents: Properties and Synonyms. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 159–. ISBN 978-94-011-4439-1. Archived from the original on 11 April 2017.
  4. ^ a b "Esketamine". Archived from the original on 29 August 2017. Retrieved 28 August 2017.
  5. ^ a b Winter C (19 August 2015). "The Club Drug Cure: Ketamine's New Shot as a Depression Treatment". Bloomberg BusinessWeek. Archived from the original on 30 March 2017.
  6. ^ Lawrence J (19 March 2015). "The secret life of ketamine". Pharmaceutical Journal. Archived from the original on 15 August 2020. Retrieved 12 December 2020.
  7. ^ Krystal, John H.; Abdallah, Chadi G.; Sanacora, Gerard; Charney, Dennis S.; Duman, Ronald S. (2019-03-06). "Ketamine: A Paradigm Shift for Depression Research and Treatment". Neuron. 101 (5): 774–778. doi:10.1016/j.neuron.2019.02.005. ISSN 1097-4199. PMC 6560624. PMID 30844397.
  8. ^ Agres T (3 December 2015). "Anesthesiologists Take Lead As Ketamine Clinics Proliferate". Anesthesiology News.
  9. ^ a b Hashimoto K (October 2019). "Rapid-acting antidepressant ketamine, its metabolites and other candidates: A historical overview and future perspective". Psychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 73 (10): 613–627. doi:10.1111/pcn.12902. PMC 6851782. PMID 31215725.
  10. ^ Nulley D (28 July 2015). "Australia Has Closed Its Most Controversial Ketamine Clinics". Vice. Archived from the original on 25 March 2017.
  11. ^ Mathew SJ, Zarate Jr CA (25 November 2016). Ketamine for Treatment-Resistant Depression: The First Decade of Progress. Springer. pp. 8–10, 14–22. ISBN 978-3-319-42925-0. Archived from the original on 8 September 2017.
  12. ^ Poisons Standard October 2015 "Poisons Standard October 2015". 30 September 2015. Archived from the original on 19 January 2016. Retrieved 6 January 2016.
  13. ^ Poisons Act 1964 http://www.slp.wa.gov.au/pco/prod/FileStore.nsf/Documents/MRDocument:26063P/$FILE/Poisons%20Act%201964%20-%20%5B09-f0-04%5D.pdf?OpenElement Archived 22 December 2015 at the Wayback Machine
  14. ^ Legal status of ketamine in Canada references:
  15. ^ "Government to tighten control on Ketamine", info.gov.hk (press release), Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative, 22 November 2000, archived from the original on 26 June 2013, retrieved 2 August 2014
  16. ^ Ho Wai-kin V (2011). Criminal Law in Hong Kong. Kluwer Law International. p. 33. ISBN 9789041133069.
  17. ^ a b Li JH, Vicknasingam B, Cheung YW, Zhou W, Nurhidayat AW, Jarlais DC, Schottenfeld R (2011). "To use or not to use: an update on licit and illicit ketamine use". Substance Abuse and Rehabilitation. 2 (1): 11–20. doi:10.2147/SAR.S15458. PMC 3846302. PMID 24474851.
  18. ^ Chang R (4 December 2012). "Ketamine to be made a class-two drug: Official". Taipei Times. p. 3. Archived from the original on 8 August 2014.
  19. ^ "Ketamine drug brought under 'Schedule X' to curb abuse". The Times of India. 7 January 2014. Archived from the original on 14 April 2014. Retrieved 2 August 2014.
  20. ^ Deb Roy S (30 December 2013). "Govt makes notorious 'date rape' drug ketamine harder to buy or sell". The Times of India. Archived from the original on 30 December 2013.
  21. ^ "Club 'horse' drug to be outlawed". BBC News. 28 December 2005. Archived from the original on 3 September 2009. Retrieved 7 May 2010.
  22. ^ Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs (ACMD); Baker, Norman (10 December 2013), Ketamine: A review of use and harm (PDF) (Policy paper), Crown copyright; Open Government Licence, archived (PDF) from the original on 28 February 2014, retrieved 22 January 2014.
  23. ^ a b Baker, Norman; (Minister for Crime Prevention); Home Office; United Kingdom (12 February 2014), Response to ACMD recommendation on ketamine (PDF) (Correspondence to Les Iverson [chair of]; Advisory Council on the Misuse of Drugs), Crown copyright; Open Government Licence, archived (PDF) from the original on 28 February 2014, retrieved 21 February 2014.
  24. ^ Dixon H (12 February 2014). "Party drug ketamine to be upgraded to Class B". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 9 June 2014. Retrieved 2 August 2014.
  25. ^ Marshall DR, (Deputy Administrator), Drug Enforcement Administration, Department of Justice (13 July 1999). "Schedules of Controlled Substances: Placement of Ketamine into Schedule III [21 CFR Part 1308. Final Rule 99-17803]" (PDF). Rules and Regulations. Federal Register. 64 (133): 37673–5. Archived (PDF) from the original on 5 May 2015.
  26. ^ Shelton G (2008). The Freak Brothers Omnibus. London: Knockabout Comics. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-86166-159-6.
  27. ^ Alltounian HS, Moore M (1978). Journeys into the Bright World. Rockport, Mass.: Para Research. ISBN 978-0-914918-12-7.[page needed]
  28. ^ Awuonda M (1 July 1996). "Swedes alarmed at ketamine misuse". The Lancet. 348 (9020): 122. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(05)64628-4. S2CID 53269227.
  29. ^ Curran HV, Morgan C (April 2000). "Cognitive, dissociative and psychotogenic effects of ketamine in recreational users on the night of drug use and 3 days later". Addiction. 95 (4): 575–90. doi:10.1046/j.1360-0443.2000.9545759.x. PMID 10829333.
  30. ^ Gahlinger PM (June 2004). "Club drugs: MDMA, gamma-hydroxybutyrate (GHB), Rohypnol, and ketamine". American Family Physician. 69 (11): 2619–26. PMID 15202696.
  31. ^ Jansen KL (March 1993). "Non-medical use of ketamine". BMJ. 306 (6878) (Clinical research ed.): 601–2. doi:10.1136/bmj.306.6878.601. PMC 1676978. PMID 8461808.
  32. ^ a b c d Joe-Laidler K, Hunt G (June 2008). "Sit Down to Float: The Cultural Meaning of Ketamine Use in Hong Kong". Addiction Research & Theory. 16 (3): 259–271. doi:10.1080/16066350801983673. PMC 2744071. PMID 19759834.
  33. ^ Measham F, Aldridge J, Parker H (2001). Dancing on drugs: risk, health and hedonism in the British club scene. London: Free Association. ISBN 978-1-85343-512-6.
  34. ^ Saunders N, Heron L (1993). E for Ecstasy. London: N. Saunders. ISBN 978-0-9501628-8-1.[page needed]
  35. ^ See: [1] for details online.
  36. ^ Moore K, Measham F (1 January 2006). "Ketamine use: minimising problems and maximising pleasure". Drugs and Alcohol Today. 6 (3): 29–32. doi:10.1108/17459265200600047.
  37. ^ a b See Max Daly, 2014, "The Sad Demise of Nancy Lee, One of Britain's Ketamine Casualties," at Vice (online), 23 July 2014, see "The Sad Demise of Nancy Lee, One of Britain's Ketamine Casualties". 23 July 2014. Archived from the original on 7 June 2015. Retrieved 7 June 2015., accessed 7 June 2015.
  38. ^ The Crown, 2013, "Drug related deaths involving ketamine in England and Wales," a report of the Mortality team, Life Events and Population Sources Division, Office for National Statistics, the Crown (U.K.), see "UK Government Web Archive". Archived from the original on 7 June 2015. Retrieved 7 June 2015. and "Deaths Related to Drug Poisoning in England and Wales – Office for National Statistics". Archived from the original on 19 June 2015. Retrieved 7 June 2015., accessed 7 June 2015.
  39. ^ Dixon H (12 February 2014). "Ketamine death of public schoolgirl an 'act of stupidity which destroyed family'". Telegraph.co.uk. Archived from the original on 24 August 2017.
  40. ^ a b "Do you know... Ketamine". Knowledge Exchange. Toronto: Centre for Addiction and Mental Health. 2003. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
  41. ^ Giannini AJ, Loiselle RH, Giannini MC, Price WA (1985). "Phencyclidine and the dissociatives". Psychiatric Medicine. 3 (3): 197–217. PMID 2893430.
  42. ^ Giannini AJ, Underwood NA, Condon M (November 2000). "Acute ketamine intoxication treated by haloperidol: a preliminary study". American Journal of Therapeutics. 7 (6): 389–91. doi:10.1097/00045391-200007060-00008. PMID 11304647.
  43. ^ Giannini AJ (1999). Drug Abuse. Los Angeles: Health Information Press. p. 104. ISBN 978-1-885987-11-2.
  44. ^ References for recreational use in literature:
  45. ^ Jansen K (2001). Ketamine: Dreams and Realities. Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies. pp. 50, 89. ISBN 978-0-9660019-3-8.
  46. ^ Woodard, D., “The Ketamine Necromance”, in A. Parfrey, Apocalypse Culture II (Los Angeles: Feral House, 2000), pp. 288–295.
  47. ^ "Ketamine". Center for Substance Abuse Research (CESAR); University of Maryland, College Park. 29 October 2013. Archived from the original on 12 November 2013. Retrieved 27 July 2014.
  48. ^ Jansen K (2001). Ketamine: Dreams and Realities. Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies. p. 24. ISBN 978-0-9660019-3-8.
  49. ^ a b c d e f g h i "Center for Substance Abuse Research: Ketamine Terminology". Archived from the original on 12 November 2013. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
  50. ^ a b Jansen K (2001). Ketamine: Dreams and Realities. Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies. p. 26. ISBN 978-0-9660019-3-8.
  51. ^ a b Jansen K (2001). Ketamine: Dreams and Realities. Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies. p. 55. ISBN 978-0-9660019-3-8.
  52. ^ a b "DEA Office of Diversion Control: Ketamine". Archived from the original on 15 December 2011. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
  53. ^ a b c "Ketamine: A fact sheet (National Clearinghouse for Alcohol and Drug Information)" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 April 2012. Retrieved 3 January 2012.
  54. ^ a b Tellier PP (September 2002). "Club drugs: is it all ecstasy?". Pediatric Annals. 31 (9): 550–6. doi:10.3928/0090-4481-20020901-07. PMID 12271739.
  55. ^ "Research Report on Hallucinogens and Dissociatives" (PDF). NIDA. Retrieved 11 January 2012.
  56. ^ Nutt D (2012). Drugs – Without the Hot Air: Minimising the Harms of Legal and Illegal Drugs. UIT Cambridge. ISBN 978-1-906860-16-5.
  57. ^ Chakraborty K, Neogi R, Basu D (June 2011). "Club drugs: review of the 'rave' with a note of concern for the Indian scenario". The Indian Journal of Medical Research. 133 (6): 594–604. PMC 3135986. PMID 21727657.
  58. ^ "Trends in Use of Various Drugs, Table 2" (PDF). Monitoring the Future. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  59. ^ a b "Use of Specific Hallucinogens: 2006". The NSDUH Report. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Archived from the original on 13 February 2012. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  60. ^ "Drug Abuse Warning Network, 2009: National Estimates of Drug-Related Emergency Department Visits" (PDF). HHS Publication No. (SMA) 11-4659, DAWN Series D-35. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 March 2012. Retrieved 17 January 2012.
  61. ^ a b "SI.com – The Mexican Connection – Jul 18, 2007". CNN. Archived from the original on June 4, 2011. Retrieved 7 May 2010.
  62. ^ Untitled-59
  63. ^ Kalsi SS, Wood DM, Dargan PI (April 2011). "The epidemiology and patterns of acute and chronic toxicity associated with recreational ketamine use". Emerging Health Threats Journal. 4: 7107. doi:10.3402/ehtj.v4i0.7107. PMC 3168228. PMID 24149025.
  64. ^ Błachut M, Sołowiów K, Janus A, Ruman J, Cekus A, Matysiakiewicz J, Hese RT (Sep–Oct 2009). "[A case of ketamine dependence]". Psychiatria Polska. 43 (5): 593–9. PMID 20214100.
  65. ^ Greenwald G. "Drug Decriminalization in Portugal" (PDF). CATO Institute. Retrieved 12 January 2012.
  66. ^ "2019 National Drug Strategy Household Survey report" (PDF). Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Retrieved 1 July 2021.
  67. ^ "The Ketamine Connection".
  68. ^ Cheung Y. "Drug Policy and Harm Reduction in Hong Kong: A Socio-Historical Examination*" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 October 2011. Retrieved 12 January 2012.
  69. ^ "CRDA Drug Statistics". Archived from the original on 1 July 2010. Retrieved 12 January 2012.
  70. ^ a b "CRDA Fifty-ninth Report (2000–2009)" (PDF). Retrieved 12 January 2012.
  71. ^ a b Chen WJ, Fu TC, Ting TT, Huang WL, Tang GM, Hsiao CK, Chen CY (January 2009). "Use of ecstasy and other psychoactive substances among school-attending adolescents in Taiwan: national surveys 2004–2006". BMC Public Health. 9 (1): 27. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-9-27. PMC 2636802. PMID 19159468.
  72. ^ Wang SH, Chen WC, Lew-Ting CY, Chen CY, Chen WJ (January 2010). "Running away experience and psychoactive substance use among adolescents in Taiwan: multi-city street outreach survey". BMC Public Health. 10 (1): 29. doi:10.1186/1471-2458-10-29. PMC 2823700. PMID 20089181.
  73. ^ Wang YC, Lee CM, Lew-Ting CY, Hsiao CK, Chen DR, Chen WJ (October 2005). "Survey of substance use among high school students in Taipei: web-based questionnaire versus paper-and-pencil questionnaire". The Journal of Adolescent Health. 37 (4): 289–95. doi:10.1016/j.jadohealth.2005.03.017. PMID 16182139.
  74. ^ Lua AC, Lin HR, Tseng YT, Hu AR, Yeh PC (September 2003). "Profiles of urine samples from participants at rave party in Taiwan: prevalence of ketamine and MDMA abuse". Forensic Science International. 136 (1–3): 47–51. doi:10.1016/S0379-0738(03)00261-5. PMID 12969619.
  75. ^ "Two strangers, with the same first name, and a terrifying story about ketamine in policing". CNN. 2020-09-01.
  76. ^ "Minnesota Paramedic Speaks Out Against Police Use of Ketamine Injections". The Intercept. 2020-08-25.
  77. ^ "Ketamine that's injected during arrests draws new scrutiny". AP. 2020-08-22.
  78. ^ "Ketamine that's injected during arrests draws new scrutiny". ABC News. Retrieved 2020-08-22.
  79. ^ Yee, Gregory (28 February 2020). "Mount Pleasant man's ketamine-related death in police custody under investigation". Post and Courier. Retrieved 2020-08-22.
  80. ^ "Colo. Paramedics' Ketamine Use for Elijah McClain Under Investigation". EMS World. Retrieved 2020-08-22.
  81. ^ "American College of Emergency Physicians and American Society of Anesthesiologists Issue Joint Statement on Ketamine Use". 2020-08-26.
  82. ^ "Star Wars Day 2020: Yoda's tragic fall from respected Jedi master to racist ketamine addict". meaww.com. 2020-05-05. Retrieved 2024-05-14.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ketamine_in_society_and_culture&oldid=1244585126"