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Canada–India relations

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Canada–India relations
Map indicating locations of India and Canada

India
Canada
Diplomatic mission
High Commission of India, OttawaHigh Commission of Canada, New Delhi
Envoy
High Commissioner of India to Canada
Vacant[1]		High Commissioner of Canada to India
Vacant [2]

Canada and India have had bilateral relations since the 19th century. Both are member nations of the Commonwealth of Nations and are part of G20, a group of world's largest economies. In 2023, bilateral trade between the countries was valued at $9.36 billion with the Indian exports to Canada worth $5.56 billion and Canadian exports to India valued at $3.80 billion.

The Indian emigration to Canada started in the late 19th century, when Indians took up jobs in Canada. The Canadian Government established quotas initially but the immigration to Canada increased multi-fold in the 1970s and 1980s. India has become one of the top source countries for immigration to Canada with Indian diaspora and according to Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada, of the more than 800,000 international students in Canada in 2022, 40 percent were from India, constituting the largest international student group in Canada. After Indian Independence in 1947, the relation between the countries were furthered with Canada keen to act as a bridge between India and the Western World. The Canadian foreign aid to India started in 1951 and grew substantially under the Colombo Plan. Though there was a convergence of interest of both the countries in the 1950s, the views of the countries began to deviate in the 1960s. Canada reacted negatively after the Canadian-supplied nuclear reactor was used for India's first nuclear test in May 1974. The bombing of Air India Flight 182 in June 1985 and the events surrounding it, further led to misunderstandings between the two countries.

After the economic liberalisation policies of India in the 1990s, it attracted the Canadian government and the business community back to India. Bilateral visits by leaders of both countries furthered business deals and interests in other areas. However, the relationship was short lived, with Canada imposing further sanctions on India following India's second nuclear test in May 1998. The relations briefly recovered after the sanctions were lifted in 2001. The late 2000s and early 2010s saw a leap in the relationship between the countries, with the signing of Nuclear Cooperation Agreement in 2010 and other agreements.

While Canada and India have a broad-based relationship, their ties have often been strained by Sikh separatists that are affiliated with the Khalistan movement, calling for an independent Punjabi Sikh nation-state in India. Diplomatic tensions were triggered after 2023 Sikh protests and Canadian allegations that Indian agents were involved in the assassination of alleged pro-Khalistani terrorist Hardeep Singh Nijjar in September 2023. Both the sides expelled diplomats and warned against traveling to the other country. The Indian government claimed that Canada has not provided any evidence while Canada has contended that it was provided intelligence on the same by US intelligence agencies. After a brief thaw in the relationship, both the countries expelled six diplomats each in another stand-off in October 2024.

History

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British empire (19th century)

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In the early 19th century, Canada and India were part of the British Empire.[3][4] The Indo-Canadian community was formed in the late 19th century due to the Indian emigration to Canada, majority of whom were Punjabis, which included veterans of the British Indian Army.[5] When the British Crown took over India, Queen Victoria proclaimed that Indians would enjoy equal privileges across the British Empire without discrimination.[6] The Indian emigrants settled mostly in the sparsely populated Western Canada and took up jobs such as law enforcement officers and lumberjacks. However, the race relations with white Canadians were strained as the socioeconomic systems ensured racial discrimination and minimal direct contact by setting up various barriers.[7] Though initially reluctant to go to these countries due to the racial discrimination, many young men chose to go upon the assurance that they would not meet the same fate in the early 20th century.[6] Canadian Government quotas were established to cap the number of Indians allowed to immigrate to Canada in the early 20th century and only allowed fewer than 100 people from India a year until 1957, when it was marginally increased to 300 people a year.[8]

Independent nations (1947–1950s)

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Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru at the House of Commons of Canada after a joint-address to the Canadian parliament, 1949

After Indian Independence, the relation between the countries were furthered.[9][10] Canada worked on creating an intercontinental group within the Commonwealth of Nations and was keen to act as a bridge between the newly independent Afro-Asian states and the Western World. India being the world's largest democracy became a key partner for Canada. The bilateral relationship was furthered by the personal relationship between Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Canadian Prime Ministers Louis St. Laurent and Lester Pearson.[9] Nehru addressed a joint session of the Canadian Parliament on 24 October 1949.[11] The Canadian foreign aid to India started in 1951 and Canada started to provide aid for smaller projects in 1955-56, which grew substantially under the Colombo Plan. Canada supported the Kundah hydro-electric project project and aero-surveys in Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.[12][13] During the Cold War, though Canada was favorable towards the United States, it pursued independent relation with India while the US aided Pakistan. As per Escott Reid, who was the High Commissioner for Canada to India from 1953 to 1957, the countries had "a special relationship" during the 1950s.[9]

Growing differences (1960s-1980s)

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Though there was a convergence of interest of both the countries, the views of the countries on major events such as the Korean War, Suez Crisis and Soviet intervention in Hungary and Canada's position on the Kashmir conflict.[9][10] Though both the countries pursued increased cooperation with the establishment of the Shastri Indo-Canadian Institute to promote academic relations in 1968 and the Canadian visit of Indian prime minister Indira Gandhi in June 1973, the relations soured further in the late 1970s.[12][11] For India's first nuclear test in May 1974, the fissionable material for the nuclear device was synthesized with the Canadian-supplied CIRUS nuclear research reactor.[14] Canada reacted negatively towards the same, especially in light of then ongoing negotiations on the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) and the economic aid it had provided to India. Canada concluded that the test violated a 1971 understanding between the two states, and froze nuclear energy assistance for the two heavy water reactors then under construction. It resolved to engage in nuclear cooperation only with countries which signed the Treaty on the NPT and the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT), and which instituted full-scope safeguards on their nuclear energy programmes under the supervision of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).[15] India had refused to sign the NPT, and voted against the UN General Assembly Resolutions which they assert violates its sovereign right to choose whether or not to sign such treaties.[16][17] In the late 1970s, Canada focused on improving relations within the Western World while India pursued its own regional alliances.[9]

Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper and Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi at a memorial for the Air India Flight 182 in Toronto, 2015

On 23 June 1985, Air India Flight 182 from Montreal to Mumbai, disintegrated over the Atlantic Ocean as a result of an explosion from a bomb planted by Canada based Sikh terrorists and resulted in the deaths of 329 people.[18][19][20] The Canadian government had been warned by the Indian R&AW about the possibility of terrorist attacks, and the Canadian Security Intelligence Service(CSIS) was accused of not acting on it. In his verdict, Justice Ian Josephson cited "unacceptable negligence" by CSIS when evidence on the suspects and other informants were destroyed.[21][22][23] The Canadian Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau turned down Indian requests for extradition of the Canadian nationals suspected to be involved in the bombing.[12]

Despite the differences between the countries, the Indian immigration continued in the 1970s and 1980s. South Asian population in Canada grew from 7,000 in 1961 to 67,900 in 1971 and more than 200,000 South Asians came to Canada between 1971 and 1982, majority of them being of Indian origin.[9]

Brief recovery and further disagreements (1990s)

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After the economic liberalisation policies of India in the 1990s, it attracted the Canadian government and the business community.[12] After Jean Chrétien became the Prime Minister of Canada in 1993, it pursued renewed relations with India. In October 1994, Canadian minister Roy MacLaren visited India with a large trade delegation and proclaimed India to be "one of the most promising markets in the Asia-Pacific region for Canadian business."[9] Bilateral visits by Chrétien along with a trade delegation in January 1996, a first by a Canadian Prime Minster in more than 25 years, and further visits by ministers of both the countries led to signing of business deals more than $3.4 billion and furthered the business interests.[24] The two countries signed a Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty in 1994, which was operationalised in 1998 and the Indian Space Research Organisation and Canadian Space Agency signed two agreements in the field of exploration of outer space in October 1996.[25] Canada and India agreed to a bilateral dialogue on combating terrorism, including the annual Canada-India Strategic Dialogue and the Canada-India working group on counter terrorism was established subsequently in 1997.[25][26][27]

After India's second nuclear test in May 1998, Canada reacted negatively similar to its reaction to the earlier nuclear test. Canada suspended trade talks, recalled its envoy to India, paused weapon exports to India and opposed any non-humanitarian aid by the World Bank. Canadian foreign minister Lloyd Axworthy sought further sanctions on India and termed it as the "use the tools of soft power to demon- strate that security is better achieved through multilateral ventures than the attainment of nuclear capabilities". Canada refused to engage with India and discuss on the nuclear policies, while India remained committed to its nuclear policy. In 1998, India contributed to just 0.1% of Canada’s exports and 0.3% of its imports. India’s exports to Canada were only 1.6% of its total exports, and its imports from Canada were only 0.8% of its total imports. More than $3 billion worth of economic projects stagnated and Canada ranked low amongst the foreign inves- tors in India, with only a 1.4% share.[9]

New beginning (early 21st century)

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Axworthy's succesor John Manley, who had personal connections with India, viewed India as a major partner and removed most of the Candian sanctions in 2001. With further visits by ministers of both countries, it was agreed between the leaders of both the countries to triple the existing trade. But the rise of terrorist attacks which occupied Canada's attention, the view of Manley's successor Bill Graham, who viewed trade with Africa and Latin America as priority, meant that the relationship did not progress much further.[9]

Canadian Prime Minister Stephen Harper with Indian President Pranab Mukherjee during Harper's visit to India in 2012.

After Stephen Harper became the Prime Minister of Canada, Canada sought to increase its ties with India. Twenty Canadian ministers visited India in the late 2000s including an official visit by Prime Minister Harper in November 2009. Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh visited Canada in June 2010, the first visit by an Indian Prime Minister to Canada since 1973. Both the countries sought to expand the bilateral relations across various sectors including education, energy, science and technology, culture, agriculture and the environment and multiple agreement on social security, foreign investment and economic partnership were agreed. The year 2011 was designated as the "Year of India in Canada" by both the governments.[12][26][28]

Signing of the India-Canada nuclear agreement in 2010.

In 2010, the Nuclear Cooperation Agreement was signed between the two countries, which was followed by a renewed agreement in 2015 to supply 3000 metric tons of Uranium concentrate to India under a five-year contract.[29] The bilateral trade increased to $4.2 billion in 2010, a 46% increase from 2005. The foreign direct investment between Canada and India reached $3.6 billion of which nearly $3.0 billion were Canadian investments in India. More than 100 bilateral agreements were signed between Canadian and Indian institutes and nearly 12,000 students traveled to Canada for higher education in 2011.[26][28]

Trudeau premiership (2015-present)

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Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau with Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi during Trudeau's official visit to India in 2018.

Justin Trudeau became the Canadian Prime Minister in 2015.[30] He spent a week in India on a state visit in February 2018. A new agreement on education was signed and the India-Canada Consular Dialogue was established to sort diplomatic issues between the nations. Further agreements were signed in areas such as sport, information and communication technology, science and innovation and civil nuclear cooperation.[25] During Trudeau's visit, he participated in a function in which Jaspal Atwal, a convict in the attempted murder of then Punjab minister Malkiat Singh Sidhu in 1986, also took part and drew criticism in India.[31]

In 2019, Canada's Public Safety Department identified Sikh extremism as one the country's top terror threats, which was however omitted from further reports following protests from some of the Sikh community. Canada has the largest Sikh population outside India and Sikhs account for nearly 2 percent of Canada’s population.[32][33] Omer Aziz, a former foreign policy advisor in the Trudeau government, claimed that the Sikh voting bloc influenced the government's policy making decisions and cited it as a reason why Canada ignored India's demands to crack down on financing from Khalistan supporters. The Indian government criticized the move and Chief Minister of Punjab Amarinder Singh claimed that Trudeau "succumbed to domestic political pressure" and that the move was a threat to global security.[34][35]

In December 2020, Trudeau expressed concerns about the handling of farmer protests by the Indian government.[36] He stated that "Canada will always be there to defend the rights of peaceful protestors" and expressed support for "the process of dialogue."[37] India protested against the remarks and the Indian Ministry of External Affairs stated that Trudeau's comments were "an unacceptable interference in our internal affairs".[38]

According to Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada (IRCC) data, of the more than 800,000 international students in Canada in 2022, 40 percent were from India, constituting the largest international student group in Canada.[39][40]

Diplomatic stand-off (2023)

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In March 2023, Canada's High Commissioner was summoned by India to "convey strong concern" over Sikh protesters in Canada and the security breach of India's diplomatic mission and consulates.[41] The tensions between the countries were fueled by disagreements over the separatist Khalistan movement and its active supporters.[42] In September 2023, during the G20 summit in New Delhi, Canada and India did not have a one-on-one meeting but instead met on the sidelines. While the Indian Prime Minister Narendra Modi conveyed concerns about the protests in Canada.[43][44]

In June 2023, Hardeep Singh Nijjar was assassinated in Canada.[45][46] On 18 September 2023, in an address in the House of Commons, Trudeau informed that the Canadian security agencies were actively pursuing allegations of potential involvement of Government of India in the killing of Nijjar. He stated that he had presented the accusations directly to Modi during the G20 summit in New Delhi and that Canada would not accept any involvement of a foreign government in the killing of a Canadian citizen on Canadian soil while urging the Indian government to cooperate in the ongoing investigation.[47][48][49] India rejected Trudeau's allegations stating that the claims are "absurd and motivated", which had been conveyed by Modi to Trudeau earlier. It also stated that such allegations were a ploy to shift the focus from the Khalistani terrorists operating from Canada, who threaten India's sovereignty and urged Canada to take action against them.[50][51]

This led to a prolonged diplomatic stand-off between the countries.[52][53][54] Canada paused talks on a proposed trade treaty with India and announced the postponement of an October trade mission to India.[55][56] Both the countries expelled diplomatic staff, claiming interference in the other's internal affairs.[57][58][59] On 20 September 2023, India warned its citizens against traveling to Canada due to "growing anti-India activities" and Canadian minister Dominic LeBlanc responded saying "Canada is a safe country".[60][61][62][63] On 21 September 2023, India announced the temporary suspension of issuance of visas for all Canadian nationals due to "security threats" against its diplomats.[64][65][66] On 24 September 2023, Canada updated its travel advisory for India, advising its citizens there to "exercise caution" due to "negative sentiment towards Canada".[67][68] The Indian government claimed that Canada has not provided any evidence linking the Indian government to Nijjar's death.[69] Canada has contended that it was provided intelligence on the same by US intelligence agencies.[70] Concerns were voiced within Canada with members such as the Premier of British Columbia David Eby voicing out suspicion that the federal government is holding back information.[71][72][73] Balraj Singh, son of Hardeep Nijjar, said his father had been meeting with Canadian Security Intelligence Service officers before the murder and according to a report by The Economic Times, Nijjar was suspected to be an asset for Canadian security services.[74][75]

Speaking at the Council on Foreign Relations, India's Minister of External Affairs S. Jaishankar raised concern over the incidents of threats to Indian diplomats and attacks on Indian consulates, stating that these are very permissive because of political reasons. He assured that the Indian side will take action if the Canadian side provides specific information in connection with Nijjar's killing.[76][77] There were further statements by leaders of the Khalistan movement threatening Indo-Canadian Hindus to leave Canada.[78][79] The Indian government also instructed its investigative agencies to identify all Khalistan supporters in Canada, and canceled their Overseas Citizenship of India card to prevent them from entering India, in addition to confiscating their assets in India.[80][81][82][83] In early October, India asked Canada to withdraw 41 of its 62 diplomats from the country and threatened to revoke the diplomatic immunity of diplomats who would remain after a certain date.[84][85][86] Canadian foreign minister Mélanie Joly announced that Canada will temporarily close three consulates in India and there would be delays in processing of visas.[87]

Leaders of various nations released statements expressing concern on the stand-off.[88][89][90][91] According to Michael Kugelman, director of the South Asia Institute at the Woodrow Wilson Center, "this may be the lowest level to which this relationship has sunk. It won't be easy to return to the old normal anytime soon".[92] In November 2023, at the United Nations Human Rights Council in Geneva, India availed the Universal Periodic Review of the human rights records of Canada to request Canada to “prevent misuse of freedom of expression for inciting violence and disallow activities of groups which are promoting extremism”.[93]

Further escalations (2024)

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In April 2024, the Canadian deputy high commissioner was summoned by India after separatist slogans supporting a Sikh homeland were allegedly raised at a Vaisakhi event addressed by Prime Minister Trudeau.[94] In June 2024, Modi and Trudeau met briefly at the G7 summit in Italy, signaling a resumption of dialogue and a reduction in diplomatic tensions.[95][96] International relations experts have called for Canada and India to find a way forward in their relations due to their engagement in a broad range of geopolitical issues and India's importance for the United States and Canada in their Indo-Pacific strategy.[97]

On 12 October 2024, Canadian officials informed Ajit Doval, India's National Security Advisor, that the Indian High Commissioner Sanjay Kumar Verma, and five other diplomats were persons of interest in the Nijjar murder and asked for their diplomatic and consular immunity to be removed so as to cooperate in the investigation.[98][99] Canadian minister of Foreign Affairs Mélanie Joly said that India did not agree to this, and the diplomats were served with notices of expulsion.[99] India released a conflicting statement saying that it had instead already withdrawn the diplomats out of safety concerns,[98][100] but later announced a tit-for-tat expulsion of six Canadian diplomats.[99][98]

Canadian officials said they had evidence of the involvement of the Indian government in various home invasions, drive-by shootings, arson and two homicides, those of Nijjar and of Sukhdool Singh, shot in Winnipeg on 20 September 2023. They said that Indian diplomats intimidated and coerced Canadians, who were seeking immigration documents and/or had family ties in India, to gather intelligence for the Indian Intelligence agency RAW and to surveil targets, who were then attacked by a gang led by Lawrence Bishnoi.[101][102] The Royal Canadian Mounted Police said they had arrested several people in connection with the case, some of whom they alleged to have had links to the Government of India. They also said to have alerted twelve Canadian residents of Indian descent based on credible evidence that they could be targeted by Indian agents and encouraged people with information to come forward to help with the investigation.[103][104]

On October 16, 2024, during a parliamentary inquiry on foreign interference, Trudeau said he only had intelligence and not solid proof when he accused Indian government agents of being involved in the killing of Hardeep Singh Nijjar in 2023.[105] The Indian government responded by blaming Trudeau for causing tension between the two countries and holding him responsible for damaging the relationship between India and Canada.[106][107]

Extradition issues

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Absconding convicts and terrorists with a proven criminal record in India have managed to escape justice as Canada, on multiple occassions, have refused to extradite them to India.

By October 2024, India had already shared about 26 extradition requests with Canada along with security information on gangs, but, according to India's Ministry of External Affairs (MEA), no action had been taken. On October 17, 2024, the MEA spokesperson, Randhir Jaiswal, categorically mentioned that Royal Canadian Mounted Police (RCMP) blamed India for the actions of the people that India had already asked to be deported, while calling out Canada's contradiction which he termed as "strange".[108][109]

In addition to the 26 individuals that India wanted deported, another person who found himself on the list was Sandeep Singh Sidhu, who, according to India's National Investigation Agency, was involved in assassination of an ex-law enforcer, Balwinder Singh Sandhu, who was shot at point blank range in 2020. Despite Sidhu's links to International Sikh Youth Federation (ISYF) and Khalistan Liberation Force, he was employed in the Canada Border Service Agency (CBSA).[110][111][112]

Diplomatic missions

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Canadian High Commission in New Delhi (left) and Indian High Commission in Ottawa

As both countries are members of the Commonwealth of Nations, Canada and India exchange High Commissioners.[113]

  • Canada:[114]
    • High commission in New Delhi
    • Consulates-general in Bangalore, Chandigarh and Mumbai
  • India:[115]
    • High commission in Ottawa
    • Consulates-general in Toronto and Vancouver

Trade

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Preneet Kaur (right), the Indian Minister of State for External Affairs signs a MoU with Ed Fast (left), the Canadian Minister of International Trade in the presence of the Prime Ministers of both the countries in 2012.

In 2023, bilateral trade between India and Canada was valued at $9.36 billion with the Indian exports to Canada worth $5.56 billion and Canadian exports to India valued at $3.80 billion.[25] In July 2024, India accounted for 0.74% ($0.74 billion) of Canada's total trade of $99.04 billion and Canada accounted for 0.82% of India's total trade of $90.14 billion.[116][117][118] The major Indian exports included pharmaceuticals, telephones, automobile parts, sea food, electrical components, and jewelry, while Canada's main exports included coal briquettes, wood pulp, iron ore, legumes, and paper.[116][119] The countries held discussions on a Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement in the 2010s and the volume of trade between the two countries has grew steadily over the last decade.[120][121]

Merchandise trade between India and Canada (2022)[116]
Canadian exports Indian exports
Merchandise Value ($ billion) % Merchandise Value ($ billion) %
Mineral fuel and oils 1.12 26.2 Chemicals and Pharmaceuticals 0.91 16.9
Fertilizer 0.77 17.8 Textiles 0.75 13.9
Paper 0.65 15.1 Machineries and electronics 0.68 12.6
Food products 0.31 7.1 Iron and steel 0.62 11.7
Aircraft 0.24 5.5 Jewellery 0.36 6.5
Iron and steel 0.23 5.3 Automobile parts 0.30 5.6
Others 1.75 41.0 Others 1.75 32.5
Total 4.32 100% Total 5.37 100%

Air connectivity

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As of 2024, Air Canada operates non-stop flights from Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver to Delhi, and from Toronto to Mumbai.[122][123] In September 2019, Air India resumed its non-stop flights from Delhi to Toronto, and began scheduled flights from Delhi to Vancouver in October 2020.[124] In May 2022, Indian aviation minister Jyotiraditya Scindia met with Canadian Transport Minister Omar Alghabra to discuss an open skies treaty, which would allow unlimited flights between the two countries.[125][126][127]

See also

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References

[edit]
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Further reading

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  • Bragta, Sanjeev Kumar. "India-Canada Relations: A View on Geopolitical, Geoeconomic Convergence and Divergence." Technium Social Science Journal 31 (2022): 693+ online.
  • Budhwar, Prem K. et al. "India-Canada Relations: a Roller-Coaster Ride." Indian Foreign Affairs Journal 13.1 (2018): 1-50. online essays by seven experts
  • Chandrasekhar, Sripati (1986). From India to Canada: a brief history of immigration, problems of discrimination, admission and assimilation. Population Review Books. ISBN 9780960908011.
  • Coward, Howard, ed. Peace. Development and Culture: Comparative Studies of lndia and Canada (Calgary: Shastri Indo-Canadian Institute. 1988).
  • Dobell, W. M. "Canada and India: The Mulroney Years." Journal of Asian and African Studies 25.3-4 (1990): 131–145.
  • Edwards, Lucie. "The lady is a tiger: Canada's erratic courtship of India." Canadian Foreign Policy Journal 18#3 (2012): 264–266.
  • Gayithri, K. et al. eds. Nation-Building, Education and Culture in India and Canada (Springer, 2019) online
  • Grewal, J.S. and Hugh Johnston, eds. The India-Canada Relationship -- Exploring Political, Economic and Cultural Dimensions (London: Sage/Shastri Indo-Canadian Institute, 1994).
  • Gupta, Ashis, ed. Canada-lndia Opportunities - Selected 1988 Conference Proceedings, (University of Calgary, 1988)
  • Mansi, K. "Foreign Policy of Canada vis-à-vis India under Stephen Harper: From Cold Storage to Warmth of Billion-Dollar Trade." in K. Gayithri, et al. eds. Nation-Building, Education and Culture in India and Canada (Springer, 2019) pp. 135-154. online
  • Mishra, Anil Dutta and Govind Prasad (2003). India and Canada: Past, Present & Future. Mittal Publications. ISBN 9788170998785.
  • Raj, Christopher S. and Abdul Nafey (2007). Canada's global engagements and relations with India. Manak Publications. ISBN 978-81-7827-168-2.
  • Reid, Escott. Envoy to Nehru (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1981).
  • Rubinoff, Arthur, ed. Canada and South Asia: Political and Strategic Relations (University of Toronto Press, 1992).
  • Rubinoff, Arthur G. "Canada's re-engagement with India." Asian Survey 42.6 (2002): 838–855. online
  • Rudner, Martin. "The Canada-India nexus: Trade and development assistance in Canada's new foreign policy framework." Canadian Foreign Policy Journal 3.2 (1995): 33–50.
  • Sharma, Kavita. "Dynamics of Sikh Diaspora and its Implications for India-Canada Relations" Research Reinforcement (2021) 9#1 pp. 50-57 ISSN 2348-3857 online
  • Singh, Milan, and Anita Singh. "Diaspora, political action, and identity: A case study of Canada's Indian diaspora." Diaspora: A Journal of Transnational Studies 17.2 (2014): 149–171. online
  • Suryanarayana, P. S. "Canada-India row: a test of the “rules-based order”." RSIS Commentaries, 141-23 (2023). online
  • Touhey, Ryan M. "The Canada-India Relationship: A Historical Understanding of Political Discontent and Diaspora." India Migration Report 2024 (Routledge India, 2024) pp.26-35. online
  • Touhey, Ryan. Conflicting Visions: Canada and India in the Cold War World, 1946-76 (U British Columbia Press, 2015)
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