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India–Myanmar relations

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Further information: Foreign relations of India and Politics of Myanmar

Indo-Burmese relations
Map indicating locations of India and Myanmar

India
Myanmar
Diplomatic mission
Embassy of India, YangonHigh Commission of Myanmar, New Delhi
Envoy
Ambassador of India to Myanmar Vinay KumarBurmese High Commissioner to India Moe Kyaw Aung

India–Myanmar relations, also known as the Indo–Burmese relations, are the bilateral relations between the Republic of India and the Republic of the Union of Myanmar. These relations encompass the political, economic and socio-cultural relations that exist between the two neighboring Asian countries. Political relations have improved considerably since 1993, overcoming tensions related to drug trafficking, the suppression of democracy and the rule of the military junta in Myanmar.[1] Political leaders from both countries meet regularly on a bilateral basis and within the ASEAN Plus Six community. Economic relations are considerable with India representing Myanmar's 4th largest export market and the country's 5th largest import partner.

The 1,600 km (990 mi) India–Myanmar border separates the Indian states of Mizoram, Manipur, Nagaland and Arunachal Pradesh in Northeast India from Kachin State, Sagaing Region and Chin State in Myanmar/Burma. In addition to the long land border, India and Myanmar also share a maritime border along India's Andaman Islands.[2]

History

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Further information: Manipuri–Burmese wars of 1717 to 1749 and Manipuri history in Myanmar
Indo-Burmese relations

India
Burma
Burmese ambassadors at Calcutta in 1882

India–Myanmar/Burmese relations date to antiquity and cultural exchanges included Buddhism and the Burmese script, which was based on the Indian Grantha script. In particular, Theravada Buddhism has tremendously influenced Burmese society and culture for millennia, with around 90% of Burma's population continuing to follow the religion.

The Meiteis from Manipur, northeast India, introduced polo and hockey in the Burmese court.[3] They introduced the science of astrology to the Burmese and the rest of the South East Asians.[4]

When Burmese King Alaungpaya invaded Siam (Thailand), he had 500 Manipuri (Meitei) horsemen with him. Meitei Brahmins worked as astrologers and priests for the Burmese royalties.[5]

Myanmar (formerly Burma) was made a province of British India by British rulers and again separated in 1937. It was in Japanese-occupied Burma that Indian nationalist Subhas Chandra Bose delivered his "Give me blood and I will give you freedom!" slogan, and Prime Minister Narendra Modi highlighted Burma's role in the Indian independence movement.[6]

Indo-Burmese relations
Map indicating locations of India and Burma

India
Burma
Jawaharlal Nehru with U Win, Burmese High Commissioner in India, on October 23, 1947.

India established diplomatic relations after Myanmar's independence from Britain in 1948. For many years, Indo-Burmese relations were strong due to Myanmar previously having been a province of India, due to cultural links, flourishing commerce, common interests in regional affairs and the presence of a significant Indian community in Myanmar.[2] India provided considerable support when Myanmar struggled with regional insurgencies. However, the overthrow of the democratic government by the Military of Myanmar led to strains in ties. Along with much of the world, India condemned the suppression of democracy and Myanmar ordered the expulsion of the Burmese Indian community, increasing its own isolation from the world.[2][7] Only China maintained close links with Myanmar while India supported the pro-democracy movement.[2][8][9]

Prime Minister Narendra Modi and Myanmar President Thein Sein, 2014

A major breakthrough occurred in 1987 when the then-Indian Prime Minister Rajiv Gandhi visited Myanmar, but relations worsened after the military junta's reaction towards pro-democracy movements in 1988, which resulted in an influx of Burmese refugees into India.[2][8] However, since 1993 the governments of the Indian Prime Ministers P. V. Narasimha Rao and Atal Bihari Vajpayee changed course and began to establish warmer relations between the two nations, as part of a wider foreign policy of increasing India's participation and influence in Southeast Asia, in light of the growing influence of the People's Republic of China, an India-Myanmar joint operation destroyed several militant camps of Arakan Army on the Indo-Myanmar border. The action averted a possible threat to the ambitious Kaladan transit and transport project which is important for improving the connectivity in the Northeast. Myanmar is important for India because of the geographic, historical, cultural and economic linkages/ties that span centuries as well as for the overall development of North-Eastern Indian states. India and Myanmar relationship officially got underway after the Treaty of Friendship was signed in 1951.[dubious – discuss].[2][unreliable source?][8][9]

In September 2024, the Indian Council of World Affairs invited representatives of the National Unity Government of Myanmar, Arakan Army, Chin National Front, and Kachin Independence Army to participate in a mid-November seminar on "Constitutionalism and Federalism." It is currently unknown whether the SAC junta was invited to this seminar.[10] India also took part in the Wilmington Declaration with Japan, the United States, and Australia to discourage the flow of jet fuel and other military items to the SAC junta.[11]

Economic relations

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India is Burma's 4th largest trading partner after Thailand, China and Singapore, and second largest export market after Thailand, absorbing 25 percent of its total exports.[12] India is also the seventh most important source of Burma's imports. The governments of India and Myanmar had set a target of achieving $1 billion and bilateral trade reached US$1.3 billion by 2017.[12] The Indian government has worked to extend air, land and sea routes to strengthen trade links with Myanmar and establish a gas pipeline.[8][12] While the involvement of India's private sector has been low and growing at a slow pace, both governments are proceeding to enhance cooperation in agriculture, telecommunications, information technology, steel, oil, natural gas, hydrocarbons and food processing.[8][12] The bilateral border trade agreement of 1994 provides for border trade to be carried out from three designated border points, one each in Manipur, Mizoram and Nagaland.[12]

Infrastructure initiatives

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On 13 February 2001 India and Myanmar inaugurated 250 kilometre Tamu-Kalewa-Kalemyo highway, popularly called the Indo-Myanmar Friendship Road, built mainly by the Indian Army's Border Roads Organisation and aimed to provide a major strategic and commercial transport route connecting North-East India, and South Asia as a whole, to Southeast Asia.[2]

India-Myanmar-Thailand Friendship Highway

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Main article: India–Myanmar–Thailand Trilateral Highway

India and Myanmar have agreed to a 4-lane, 3200 km triangular highway connecting India, Myanmar and Thailand. The route, which is expected to have completed during 2016, runs from India's northeastern states into Myanmar, where over 1,600 km of roads were built or improved.

The route begins from Guwahati in India and connects to Mandalay in Myanmar, route continues to Yangon in Myanmar and then to Mae Sot in Thailand, which then continues to Bangkok.

India is undertaking two sections of the Trilateral Highway namely, (i) construction of Kalewa-Yagyi road section in Myanmar, and (ii) construction of 69 bridges on the Tamu-Kyigone-Kalewa (TKK) road section in Myanmar. The work on both these sections has been awarded on Engineering, Procurement and Construction mode and is underway since May 2018 for Kalewa-Yagyi section and November 2017 for the TKK section.[13]

The first phase connecting Guwahati to Mandalay will eventually be extended to Cambodia and Vietnam under Mekong-Ganga Cooperation within the wider framework of Asian Highway Network. This is aimed at creating a new economic zone ranging from Kolkata on the Bay of Bengal to Ho Chi Minh City on the South China Sea.[14]

Kaladan Multi-modal Transit Route

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The Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project will connect the eastern Indian seaport of Kolkata with Sittwe seaport in Myanmar by sea; it will then link Sittwe seaport to Lashio in Myanmar via Kaladan river boat route and then from Lashio on to Mizoram in India by road transport. The project was scheduled to be completed by 2014 according to Governor of Mizoram Vakkom Purushothaman.,[15] but there have been delays and the project was completed till the road component from Lashio to Mizoram, the project was again expected to be finished by December 2023 but was again slowed due to security problems in Myanmar .[16][17]

Visas

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During a 2017 visit to Nay Pyi Taw, Prime Minister Modi announced that India would offer gratis/no-cost visas to all Myanmar citizens visiting India.[18][19]

Strategic cooperations

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India's move to forge close relations with Myanmar are motivated by a desire to counter China's growing influence as a regional leader[dubious – discuss] and enhance its own influence and standing.[2][8][20] Concerns and tensions increased in India over China's extensive military involvement in developing ports, naval and intelligence facilities and industries, specifically the upgrading of a naval base in Sittwe, a major seaport located close to the eastern Indian city of Kolkata.[2] India's engagement of the Burmese military junta has helped ease the regime's international isolation and lessen Burma's reliance on China.[2] Both nations sought to cooperate to counteract drug trafficking and insurgent groups operating in the border areas.[8] India and Myanmar are leading members of BIMSTEC and the Mekong-Ganga Cooperation, along with Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia and Thailand, helping India develop its influence and ties amongst Southeast Asian nations.[2]

In 2013, India provided a loan of about US$500million.[21] to Myanmar for its development; India and Myanmar have also agreed to cooperate militarily in order to help modernize Myanmar's military.[citation needed]

In 2020, India gifted the Myanmar navy its first ever submarine, a kilo class (INS Sindhuvir) attack submarine which has been refurbished and modernised by Hindustan Shipyard Limited.[22]

Security ties

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Indian and Myanmar troops carried out jointly Operation Sunrise and Operation Sunrise 2 in 2019 in their respective territories to destroy several insurgent camps. However the threat to the Kaladan multi-modal transit transport project, India's gateway to Southeast Asia continues.[23] In January 2023 operations by the Myanmar Air Force in a sparsely populated area along the border were carried out; proximity of local populations resulted in their disquiet.[24][25]

India has also supported Myanmar in its efforts to combat Rohingya insurgent groups like the Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army (ARSA) and Aqa Mul Mujahideen (AMM),[26][27] after Indian intelligence agencies found the ARSA and AMM to have links with terror groups like the Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) as well as reported Rohingya terrorists fighting alongside Pakistani extremists in Kashmir.[28]

Disaster relief

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India responded promptly and effectively in rendering assistance after natural disaster in Myanmar such as the earthquake in Shan state (2010), Cyclone Mora (2017), and Cyclone Komen (2015). India offered to help in capacity building in disaster risk mitigation as well as strengthening Myanmar's National Disaster Response Mechanism.

Covid-19 vaccines

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India granted 1.7 million COVID-19 vaccines to Myanmar in the months of January and February 2021.[29]

Human rights

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India was hesitant in reacting to the 2007 Burmese anti-government protests that had drawn overwhelming international condemnation.[20] India also declared that it had no intention of interfering in Burma's internal affairs and that the Burmese people would have to achieve democracy by themselves as it respects the sovereignty of Myanmar.[8] This low-key response has been widely criticised both within India and abroad as weakening India's credentials as a leading democratic nation.[2][8][20]

In contrast to much of the international community, Prime Minister Modi declined to criticize Suu Kyi's handling of the 2016–17 Northern Rakhine State clashes or Myanmar's government's treatment of its Rohingya people.[30][31]

India also announced plans to deport its Rohingya refugee population. Minister of State for Home Affairs Kiren Rijiju described the refugees as "illegal immigrants", echoing the Myanmar government position.[32][33] Although the Rohingya have fought deportation in the Indian courts (partly on humanitarian grounds), in September 2017 the Indian government responded that India did not sign the 1951 Refugee Convention and most Rohingya arrived in India before the August 2017 violence. Some Indian media have reported that the country's intelligence agencies suspect militant Royhinga leaders of conspiring with Pakistani terrorists and planning to incite violence in India.[34]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Egreteau, Renaud (2008). "India's Ambitions in Burma: More Frustration than Success?". Asian Survey. 48 (6): 936–957. doi:10.1525/as.2008.48.6.936.
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "Asia Times: Myanmar shows India the road to Southeast Asia". Archived from the original on 22 May 2001. Retrieved 2 April 2016.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  3. ^ Sanajaoba, Naorem (1988). Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization. Mittal Publications. p. 96. ISBN 978-81-7099-853-2.
  4. ^ Sanajaoba, Naorem (1988). Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization. Mittal Publications. p. 101. ISBN 978-81-7099-853-2.
  5. ^ Sanajaoba, Naorem (1988). Manipur, Past and Present: The Heritage and Ordeals of a Civilization. Mittal Publications. p. 19. ISBN 978-81-7099-853-2.
  6. ^ "PM Modi visits Shwedagon Pagoda, grave of Bahadur Shah Zafar in Myanmar". The Hindustan Times. 7 September 2017. Emphasising Myanmar's value in India's freedom struggle, Prime Minister Modi said that this is the sacred land from where Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose gave the slogan of 'give me blood and I will give you freedom'.
  7. ^ Erlanger, Steven (24 July 1988). "Years of Isolation Produced Intensely Poor Nation". The New York Times. Retrieved 2 April 2016.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i "BBC NEWS - South Asia - Explaining India's silence over Burma". 26 September 2007. Retrieved 2 April 2016.
  9. ^ a b Realism in India-Myanmar relations Archived 15 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  10. ^ Exclusive: India extends unprecedented invite to Myanmar's anti-junta forces, sources say. Reuters. September 23, 2024. Wa Lone and Devjyot Ghoshal Archived September 24, 2024, at Ghost Archive
  11. ^ The Wilmington Declaration Joint Statement from the Leaders of Australia, India, Japan, and the United States September 21, 2024. whitehouse.gov
  12. ^ a b c d e "India-Myanmar trade relations". Archived from the original on 12 February 2012. Retrieved 2 April 2016.
  13. ^ "QUESTION NO.1127 STATUS OF TRILATERAL HIGHWAY PROJECT". mea.gov.in. Retrieved 20 December 2018.
  14. ^ "India to open super highway to Burma and Thailand". Telegraph.co.uk. 29 May 2012. Retrieved 2 April 2016.
  15. ^ Purushothaman, Vakkom. "Kaladan Multi Modal Transit Transport Project to link sea route in Myanmar with Mizoram". The Northeast Times. Archived from the original on 15 April 2012. Retrieved 11 August 2012.
  16. ^ Elizabeth Roche (14 August 2014). "Highway linking India to Myanmar, Thailand likely by 2016: VK Singh". livemint. Retrieved 2 April 2016.
  17. ^ Bhattacherjee, Kallol (8 February 2024). "India's Kaladan project 'almost dead' after Paletwa fell to Arakan Army: senior Myanmar Opposition leader". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 3 November 2024.
  18. ^ Press Trust of India (6 September 2017). "India To Grant Gratis Visa To Myanmarese Citizens: PM Narendra Modi". NDTV. "I am pleased to announce that we have decided to grant gratis (no-cost) visa to all the citizens of Myanmar who want to visit India," Prime Minister Modi said.
  19. ^ "India to grant free visa to Myanmar citizens: Modi". The Hindu. 6 September 2017.
  20. ^ a b c "India's Burma Silence Says Volumes". Time. 29 September 2007. Archived from the original on 22 May 2008. Retrieved 2 April 2016.
  21. ^ Myanmar to use Indian bank loans for development Archived 15 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  22. ^ Bhattacharjee, Kallol (16 October 2020). "India to handover Kilo class attack submarine to Myanmar". The Hindu. ISSN 0971-751X. Retrieved 20 October 2020.
  23. ^ "Operation Sunrise 2: Several insurgent camps destroyed along Indo-Myanmar border; Myanmar Army suffers losses". 18 June 2019. Archived from the original on 19 June 2019.
  24. ^ Hassan, Aakash; Ellis-Petersen, Hannah (11 January 2023). "Myanmar junta hit Indian territory during strike on rebel camp, say witnesses". The Guardian. Retrieved 12 January 2023.
  25. ^ Agarwala, Tora; Dutta, Amrita Nayak (12 January 2023). "Myanmar air strikes target rebel camp near border, panic in Mizoram village". The Indian Express. Retrieved 12 January 2023.
  26. ^ Dutta, Prakash K (8 September 2017). "Rohingyas in India and terror threat: How jihadi forces may have infiltrated persecuted Muslims of Myanmar". India Today.
  27. ^ Bhaumik, Subir (18 October 2017). "Why do China, India back Myanmar over the Rohingya crisis?". South China Morning Post.
  28. ^ Chaudhury, Dipanjan Roy (12 July 2018). "Rohingya terrorists linked to pro-Pak terror groups in Jammu & Kashmir". Economic Times.
  29. ^ "Vaccine Supply". www.mea.gov.in. Retrieved 12 June 2021.
  30. ^ Kasturi, Charu Sudan (6 September 2017). "Modi stands by Suu Kyi". The Telegraph. Archived from the original on 8 September 2017.
  31. ^ Wu, Huizhong (7 September 2017). "Indian Prime Minister blames Rohingya violence on extremists". CNN.
  32. ^ Kazmin, Amy (10 September 2017). "India's Rohingya refugees face new deportation threat". The Financial Times. Archived from the original on 11 September 2017. Police across India have been instructed by New Delhi to step up surveillance of Rohingya or anyone suspected of being from the minority as a preparatory step. "They are illegal immigrants in India," Kiren Rijiju, minister of state for home affairs, told reporters last week. "As per law, they stand to be deported."
  33. ^ Phukan, Sandeep (5 September 2017). "Rohingya are illegal immigrants who need to be deported, says Kiren Rijiju". The Hindu. Retrieved 14 September 2017.
  34. ^ "Varun Gandhi's View On Rohingya Draws Big Put-Down From Government" 26 September 2017, NDTV.com, retrieved 26 September 2017

Further reading

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  • Daigorō Chihara (1996). Hindu-Buddhist Architecture in Southeast Asia. BRILL. ISBN 90-04-10512-3.
  • Cœdès, George (1968). Walter F. Vella (ed.). The Indianized States of Southeast Asia. trans.Susan Brown Cowing. University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 978-0-8248-0368-1.
  • Lokesh, Chandra, & International Academy of Indian Culture. (2000). Society and culture of Southeast Asia: Continuities and changes. New Delhi: International Academy of Indian Culture and Aditya Prakashan.
  • R. C. Majumdar, Study of Sanskrit in South-East Asia
  • R. C. Majumdar, Ancient Indian colonisation in South-East Asia.
  • R. C. Majumdar, Champa, Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East, Vol.I, Lahore, 1927. ISBN 0-8364-2802-1
  • R. C. Majumdar, Suvarnadvipa, Ancient Indian Colonies in the Far East, Vol.II, Calcutta,
  • R. C. Majumdar, Kambuja Desa or an Ancient Hindu Colony in Cambodia, Madras, 1944
  • R. C. Majumdar, India and South-East Asia, I.S.P.Q.S. History and Archaeology Series Vol. 6, 1979, ISBN 81-7018-046-5.
  • R. C. Majumdar, History of the Hindu Colonization and Hindu Culture in South-East Asia
  • Amit Singh, "Emerging Trends in India-Myanmar Relations," Maritime Affairs: Journal of the National Maritime Foundation of India, Vol. 8, No. 2, (Dec 2012) Pages: 25-47 DOI:10.1080/09733159.2012.742650
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