Jump to content

Puerto Ricans

Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from History of Puerto Ricans)
For other uses, see Stateside Puerto Ricans.

Puerto Ricans
  • Puertorriqueños
  • Boricuas
Flag of Puerto Rico
Total population
Puerto Ricans: ~9 million
Diaspora: ~6 million[1][2]
Regions with significant populations
 Puerto Rico
(2022)		3,075,871[3]
 United States (2022)5,905,178[4]
 U.S. Virgin Islands
(2020)		7,759[5]
 Dominican Republic (2015)6,083[6]
 Canada (2016)3,405[7]
 Mexico (2000)1,970[8]
 Venezuela (2001)528[9]
 Netherlands (2019)241[10]
Languages
Religion
Related ethnic groups
Part of a series on
Puerto Ricans
"El Velorio" - 'The Wake' - by Puerto Rican impressionist artist Francisco Oller
By region or country
Subgroups
Culture
Religion
History
Language
flag Puerto Rico portal

Puerto Ricans (Spanish: Puertorriqueños),[12][13] most commonly known as Boricuas,[a][14] but also occasionally referred to as Borinqueños, Borincanos,[b] or Puertorros,[c][15] are an ethnic group native to the Caribbean archipelago and island of Puerto Rico, and a nation identified with the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico through ancestry, culture, or history. Puerto Ricans are predominately a tri-racial, Spanish-speaking, Christian society, descending in varying degrees from Indigenous Taíno natives, Southwestern European colonists, and West and Central African slaves, freedmen, and free Blacks. As citizens of a U.S. territory, Puerto Ricans have automatic birthright American citizenship, and are considerably influenced by American culture. The population of Puerto Ricans is between 9 and 10 million worldwide, with the overwhelming majority residing in Puerto Rico and mainland United States.

Overview

Main article: Demographics of Puerto Rico

The culture held in common by most Puerto Ricans is referred to as a Western culture largely derived from the traditions of Spain, and more specifically Andalusia and the Canary Islands. Puerto Rico has also received immigration from other parts of Spain such as Catalonia as well as from other European countries such as France, Ireland, Italy and Germany. Puerto Rico has also been influenced by African culture, with many Puerto Ricans partially descended from Africans, though Afro-Puerto Ricans of unmixed African descent are only a significant minority. Also present in today's Puerto Ricans are traces (about 10-15%) of the aboriginal Taino natives that inhabited the island at the time European colonizers arrived in 1493.[16][17] Recent studies in population genetics have concluded that Puerto Rican gene pool is on average predominantly European, with a significant Sub-Saharan African, North African Guanche, and Indigenous American substrate, the latter two originating in the aboriginal people of the Canary Islands and Puerto Rico's pre-Columbian Taíno inhabitants, respectively.[18][19][20][21]

The population of Puerto Ricans and descendants is estimated to be between 8 and 10 million worldwide, with most living on the islands of Puerto Rico and in the United States mainland. Within the United States, Puerto Ricans are present in all states of the Union, and the states with the largest populations of Puerto Ricans relative to the national population of Puerto Ricans in the United States at large are the states of New York, Florida, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, with large populations also in Massachusetts, Connecticut, California, Illinois, and Texas.[22][23]

For 2009,[24] the American Community Survey estimates give a total of 3,859,026 Puerto Ricans classified as "Native" Puerto Ricans. It also gives a total of 3,644,515 (91.9%) of the population being born in Puerto Rico and 201,310 (5.1%) born in the United States. The total population born outside Puerto Rico is 322,773 (8.1%). Of the 108,262 who were foreign born outside the United States (2.7% of Puerto Ricans), 92.9% were born in Latin America, 3.8% in Europe, 2.7% in Asia, 0.2% in Northern America, and 0.1% in Africa and Oceania each.[25]

Number of Puerto Ricans

Population (1765–1897)

The populations during Spanish rule of Puerto Rico were:

Ethnic composition of Puerto Rico 1765 - 1897
1765 Population Percent 1802 Population Percent 1897 Population Percent
Other (incl: African,
Mulatto, Indigenous)1		 22,274 49.6% White 78,281 48.0% White 573,187 64.3%
White 17,572 39.2% African 16,414 10.0% African 75,824 8.6%
African2 5,037 11.2% Mulatto 55,164 33.8% Mixed 241,900 27.1%
- - - Other African2 13,333 8.2% - - -
- - - - - - - - -
Puerto Rico 44,833 100.0% Spain Puerto Rico 163,192 100.0% Spain Puerto Rico 890,911 100.0%
1765 Census. (First census)[26][27] 1802 Census.[27][28] 1897 Census[29] ^1 Indigenous: Taino people, Also Arawak people.^2 : Slave population.

Current population and ethnic identity (2020)

(2020 Census)
Self-identified racial and ethnic composition in Puerto Rico - 2020 Census [30]
Ethnicity
White (560,592)
 
 17.1%
Black or African American (228,711)
 
 7.0%
Asian (4,001)
 
 0.1%
Two or more races (1,635,791)
 
 49.8%
American Indian (17,870)
 
 0.5%
Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander (593)
 
 0.0%
Other races (838,316)
 
 25.5%
Total:3,285,874[31]
 
 100.0%

Ancestry and genetics

Crowd gathering on a street in Puerto Rico in 1939, photographed by Robert Yarnall Richie

The original inhabitants of Puerto Rico are the Taíno, who called the island Borikén or Borinquen; however, as in other parts of the Americas, the native people soon diminished in number after the arrival of Spanish settlers. Besides miscegenation, the negative impact on the numbers of Amerindian people, especially in Puerto Rico, was almost entirely the result of Old World diseases that the Amerindians had no natural/bodily defenses against, including measles, chicken pox, mumps, influenza, and even the common cold. In fact, it was estimated that the majority of all the Amerindian inhabitants of the New World died out due to contact and contamination with those Old World diseases, while those that survived were further reduced through deaths by warfare with Spanish colonizers and settlers.

Thousands of Spanish settlers also immigrated to Puerto Rico from the Canary Islands during the 18th and 19th centuries, so many so that whole Puerto Rican villages and towns were founded by Canarian immigrants, and their descendants would later form a majority of the population on the island.[citation needed]

In 1791, the slaves in Saint-Domingue (Haiti), revolted against their French masters. Many of the French escaped to Puerto Rico via what is now the Dominican Republic and settled in the west coast of the island, especially in Mayagüez. Some Puerto Ricans are of British heritage, most notably Scottish people and English people who came to reside there in the 17th and 18th centuries.[citation needed]

When Spain revived the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 with the intention of attracting non-Spanish Europeans to settle in the island, thousands of Corsicans (though the island was French since 1768 the population spoke an Italian dialect similar to Tuscan Italian) during the 19th century immigrated to Puerto Rico, along with German immigrants as well as Irish immigrants who were affected by the Great Famine of the 1840s, immigrated to Puerto Rico. They were followed by smaller waves from other European countries and China.[citation needed]

During the early 20th century Jews began to settle in Puerto Rico. The first large group of Jews to settle in Puerto Rico were European refugees fleeing German–occupied Europe in the 1930s and 1940s. The second influx of Jews to the island came in the 1950s, when thousands of Cuban Jews fled Cuba after Fidel Castro came to power.[32]

Ethnogenesis

The native Taino population began to dwindle, with the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, through disease and intermarriage.[33] Many Spaniard men took Taino and West African wives and in the first centuries of the Spanish colonial period the island was overwhelmingly racially mixed. "By 1530 there were 14 native women married to Spaniards, not to mention Spaniards with concubines."[34] Under Spanish rule, mass immigration shifted the ethnic make-up of the island, as a result of the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815. Puerto Rico went from being two-thirds black and mulatto in the beginning of the 19th century, to being nearly 80% white by the middle of the 20th century. This was compounded by more flexible attitudes to race under Spanish rule, as epitomized by the Regla del Sacar.[35][36][37][38][39] Under Spanish rule, Puerto Rico had laws such as Regla del Sacar or Gracias al Sacar, which allowed persons of mixed ancestry to pay a fee to be classified as white,[40] which was the opposite of "one-drop rule" in US society after the American Civil War.[41][42]

Two men sit by the side of a road with the ocean behind them in Puerto Rico.

Studies have shown that the racial ancestry mixture of the average Puerto Rican (regardless of racial self-identity) is about 64% European, 21% African, and 15% Native Taino, with European ancestry strongest on the west side of the island and West African ancestry strongest on the east side, and the levels of Taino ancestry (which, according to some research, ranges from about 5%-35%) generally highest in the southwest of the island.[43][44][45]

A study of a sample of 96 healthy self-identified White Puerto Ricans and self-identified Black Puerto Ricans in the U.S. showed that, although all carried a contribution from all 3 ancestral populations (European, African, and Amerindian), the proportions showed significant variation. Depending on individuals, although often correlating with their self-identified race, African ancestry ranged from less than 10% to over 50%, while European ancestry ranged from under 20% to over 80%. Amerindian ancestry showed less fluctuation, generally hovering between 5% and 20% irrespective of self-identified race.[46][47][48]

The majority of the European ancestry in Puerto Ricans comes from southern Spain, more specifically the Canary Islands, this is also true for many Dominicans and Cubans. Canarians are of partial Guanche ancestry, a North African Berber ethnic group who were the original inhabitants before Spanish conquest. This means that by extension, many Puerto Ricans have minuscule amounts of North African blood through the indigenous Guanches of the Canary Islands.[49][50]

Race and ethnicity

White

Ramón Power y Giralt was a Puerto Rican military officer and politician.
Main articles: White Puerto Ricans and Spanish settlement of Puerto Rico

In the 1899 census, taken the year Spain ceded Puerto Rico to the United States following its invasion and annexation in the Spanish–American War, 61.8% of the people were identified as White. In the 2020 United States Census the total of Puerto Ricans that self-identified as White was 17.1% or 560,592 out of the 3,285,874 people living in Puerto Rico,[30] down from 75.8% in the 2010 Census, reflecting a change in perceptions of race in Puerto Rico.[35][51][52] For every United States census until 2010, most Puerto Ricans self identified as "white".[53][35][54][55][56][57]

The European ancestry of Puerto Ricans comes primarily from one source: Spaniards (including Canarians, Catalans, Castilians, Galicians, Asturians, Andalusians, and Basques). The Canarian cultural influence in Puerto Rico is one of the most important components in which many villages were founded from these immigrants, which started from 1493 to 1890 and beyond. Many Spaniards, especially Canarians, chose Puerto Rico because of its Hispanic ties and relative proximity in comparison with other former Spanish colonies. They searched for security and stability in an environment similar to that of the Canary Islands and Puerto Rico was the most suitable. This began as a temporary exile which became a permanent relocation and the last significant wave of Spanish or European migration to Puerto Rico.[58][59]

Other sources of European populations are Corsicans, French, Italians, Portuguese (especially Azoreans), Greeks, Germans, Irish, Scots, Maltese, Dutch, English, and Danes.

Black

Main article: Afro-Puerto Ricans

In the 2020 United States Census, 7.0% of people self-identified as Black.[51] Africans were brought by Spanish Conquistadors.[citation needed] The vast majority of the Africans who were brought to Puerto Rico did so as a result of the slave trade taking place from many groups in the African continent, but particularly the West Africans, the Yoruba,[60] the Igbo,[60] and the Kongo people.

Indigenous

Main articles: Indigenous peoples of the Caribbean, Mestizo, and Taino people

Indigenous people make up the third largest racial identity among Puerto Ricans, comprising 0.5% of the population.[51][30] Although this self-identification may be ethno-political in nature since unmixed Tainos no longer exist as a discrete genetic population. Native American admixture in Puerto Ricans ranges between about 5% and 35%, with around 15% being the approximate average.[61][47][48][45]

Puerto Rico's self-identified indigenous population therefore consist mostly of indigenous-identified persons (oftentimes with predominant Indigenous ancestry, but not always) from within the genetically mestizo population of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry, even when most other Puerto Ricans of their exact same mixture would identify either as mixed-race or even as white.

Asian

Main articles: Asian Puerto Ricans, Chinese immigration to Puerto Rico, and Indo-Caribbean

For its 2020 census, the U.S. Census Bureau listed the following groups to constitute "Asian":[62] Asian Indian, Bangladeshi, Bhutanese, Cambodian, Chinese, Filipino, Hmong, Indonesian, Japanese, Korean, Laotian, Malaysian, Nepalese, Pakistani, Sri Lankan, Taiwanese, Thai, Vietnamese, and Other Asian. Though, the largest groups come from China and India. These groups represented 0.1% of the population.

Other

José Campeche is the first known Puerto Rican visual artist.
Main articles: Mulatto and Multiracial

People of "Some other race alone" or "Two or more races" constituted 75.3% of the population in the 2020 Census.[30]

Although the average Puerto Rican is of mixed-race,[63] few actually identified as multiracial ("two or more races") in the 2010 census; only 3.3% did so.[31][64] They more often identified with their predominant heritage or phenotype. However, in the 2020 census, the amount of Puerto Ricans identifying as multiracial went up to 49.8% and an additional 25.5% identified as "some other race", showing a marked change in the way Puerto Ricans view themselves. This may show that Puerto Ricans are now more open to embracing all sides of their mixed-race heritage and do not view themselves as part of the standard race dynamic in the United States hence the high number of people identifying as "some other race", a similar phenomenon went on in the mainland United States with the overall US Hispanic/Latino population.[65] Most have significant ancestry from two or more of the founding source populations of Spaniards, Africans, and Tainos, although Spanish ancestry is predominant in a majority of the population. Small amounts of Puerto Ricans may have additional ancestries from other parts of the world. Similar to many other Latin American ethnic groups, Puerto Ricans are multi-generationally mixed race, though most are European dominant in ancestry, Puerto Ricans who are "evenly mixed" can accurately be described "Mulatto", "Quadroon", or Tri-racial very similar to mixed populations in Cuba and Dominican Republic. According to the National Geographic Genographic Project, "the average Puerto Rican individual carries 12% Native American, 65% West Eurasian (Mediterranean, Northern European and/or Middle Eastern) and 20% Sub-Saharan African DNA."[66]

In genetic terms, even many of those of pure Spanish origin would have North and, in some cases, West African ancestry brought from founder populations, particularly in the Canary Islands.[67] Along with European, West African, and Taino, many Puerto Ricans have small amounts of North African blood due to settlers from Canary Islands, the Spanish province where most Puerto Ricans draw their European ancestry from, being of partial North African blood. Very few self-identified Black Puerto Ricans are of unmixed African ancestry, while a genetically unmixed Amerindian population in Puerto Rico is technically extinct despite a minuscule segment of self-identified Amerindian Puerto Ricans due to a minor Amerindian component in their ancestral mixture. Research data shows that 60% of Puerto Ricans carry maternal lineages of Native American origin and the typical Puerto Rican has between 5% and 15% Native American admixture.[66]

Modern identity

Main article: Culture of Puerto Rico
"A Puerto Rican family lives here" sign on a wall in San Juan

The Puerto Rico of today has come to form some of its own social customs, cultural matrix, historically rooted traditions, and its own unique pronunciation, vocabulary, and idiomatic expressions within the Spanish language, known as Puerto Rican Spanish. Even after the attempted assimilation of Puerto Rico into the United States in the early 20th century, the majority of the people of Puerto Rico feel pride in their Puerto Rican nationality,[68] regardless of the individual's particular racial, ethnic, political, or economic background. Many Puerto Ricans are consciously aware of the rich contribution of all cultures represented on the island. This diversity can be seen in the everyday lifestyle of many Puerto Ricans such as the profound Latin, African, and Taíno influences regarding food, music, dance, and architecture.[69]

Emigration

See also: Stateside Puerto Ricans

During the Spanish colonial period, there was significant migration from Puerto Rico to Santo Domingo (DR), Cuba, the Virgin Islands, and Venezuela, and vice versa, because migration between neighboring colonies especially under the same European power, was common. Nearly all Puerto Ricans who migrated to these areas during these times, assimilated and intermixed with the local populations. In the early days of US rule, from 1900 to the 1940s, the Puerto Rican economy was small and undeveloped, it relied heavily on agriculture. At this time, Puerto Rican migration waves were mainly to Dominican Republic,[70] the Virgin Islands, and US cities such as Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Miami, New Orleans, and most importantly metropolitan area surrounding New York City and North Jersey. Over 5,000 Puerto Ricans migrated to Hawaii from 1900 to 1901.[71][72][73][74] Puerto Rican migration to the US northeast started as early as the 1890s; however, it was a very, very small flow at the time. During the 1940s, Puerto Rican desire for independence slowly started to decline while desire for statehood and dependence on the US started rise, due to this more Puerto Ricans started to look at the US more favorably and take full advantage of their US citizenship, huge flows of Puerto Ricans started to arrive in the United States, particularly industrial cities in the Northeast and Midwest, coinciding with a strong decline in Puerto Ricans migrating to other countries and even other areas in the US like Baltimore, New Orleans, and Hawaii.[75][76] From 1940 to 1960, the stateside Puerto Rican population rose from 69,967 to 892,513.

In the modern day, there are about 5.9 million Puerto Ricans in the US mainland.[77] Large concentrations can be found in the Northeast region and in Florida, in the metropolitan areas of New York, Orlando, Philadelphia, Miami, Chicago, Tampa, and Boston, among others. Though, over 95% of Puerto Ricans living outside of Puerto Rico, live in the United States (US states), there is a significant and growing number of Puerto Ricans, mainly from Puerto Rico itself but to a lesser degree stateside Puerto Ricans as well, living outside the 50 States and the US territory of Puerto Rico. Puerto Rican populations in other countries are very small, not large enough to have dominance over certain neighborhoods and cities like in Florida and the US Northeast. Unsurprisingly, Puerto Rico's neighbors have the biggest Puerto Rican communities outside Puerto Rico and the US mainland, to the west Dominican Republic with as high as 20,000 Puerto Ricans according to some sources,[78][79][80][81] and to the east US Virgin Islands with 7,759, 8.9% of the territory's population, second highest percentage of any US state or territory, after Puerto Rico (95.5%) and before Connecticut (8.0%).[82][83] There are small numbers of Puerto Ricans in other countries like Canada, Spain, Mexico, United Kingdom, and other countries in Europe and the Caribbean/Latin America. Due to Puerto Rico being a US territory, the vast majority of Puerto Ricans leaving the island go to the mainland United States, comprising Puerto Ricans of all income brackets and lifestyles. However, majority of the small number of Puerto Ricans living outside of the United States, including outside of Puerto Rico and other territories, are usually financially well-off and entrepreneurial, owning homes and businesses in the countries they choose to settle in.[84][85][86][87] Statistical counts of Puerto Rican populations in other countries usually only center on ethnic Puerto Ricans born in Puerto Rico. Non-Puerto Ricans born in Puerto Rico and later moving to target country usually wouldn't be included in a Puerto Rican population count, especially if they have ancestry of at least one parent born in target country, for example people of Dominican, Cuban, or Mexican etc ancestry born in Puerto Rico and later returning to their ancestral country- wouldn't be counted in a Puerto Rican population count, but likely rather counted as a "returning emigrant". Similarly, Puerto Ricans born in the mainland United States would be counted under an "American" statistic, so the Puerto Rican populations abroad may be slightly larger as some may be stateside-born and counted as "American" rather than "Puerto Rican" on local government statistics on immigrants.[88][6][89][90]

Language

Spanish and English are the official languages of the entire Commonwealth. A 1902 English-only language law was abolished on April 5, 1991. Then on January 28, 1993, the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico approved Law Number 1 again making Spanish and English the official languages of Puerto Rico.[63][91] All official business of the U.S. District Court for the District of Puerto Rico is conducted in English. The official languages[92] of the executive branch of government of Puerto Rico[93] are Spanish and English, with Spanish being the primary language. English is the primary language of less than 10% of the population.

Puerto Rican Spanish is the dominant language of business, education and daily life on the island.[94] The US Census Bureau's 2015 update provides the following:[95] 94.1% of adults speak Spanish, 5.8% speak only English and little to no Spanish, 78.3% do not speak English "very well", 15.8% are fully bilingual in both English and Spanish, 0.1% speak other languages.[96]

Public school instruction in Puerto Rico is conducted almost entirely in Spanish. There have been pilot programs in about a dozen of the over 1,400 public schools aimed at conducting instruction in English only. Objections from teaching staff are common, perhaps because many of them are not fully fluent in English.[97] English is taught as a second language and is a compulsory subject from elementary levels to high school.

Home to a sizeable deaf community, the actual numbers are unknown due to unavailable source data.[98] A 1986 estimate places the Puerto Rican deaf population to be between 8,000 and 40,000.[99] Due to ongoing colonization from the US mainland, the larger American Sign Language (ASL) is supplanting the local Puerto Rican Sign Language (PRSL, also known as LSPR: Lenguaje de Señas Puertorriqueño).[98] Although assumed to be a dialect or variant of ASL, it is currently unknown the degree of mutual intelligibility between Puerto Rican Sign Language nor whether it is even a Francosign language like ASL. Indeed, there is a hesitancy amongst Puerto Rican Deaf to even mention LSPR after heavy handed oralist education of English, Spanish, and Signed English.[98][100] Today, there is much contact between ASL, PRSL, and Signed Spanish.[98]

The Spanish of Puerto Rico has evolved into having many idiosyncrasies in vocabulary and syntax that differentiate it from the Spanish spoken elsewhere. While the Spanish spoken in all Iberian, Mediterranean and Atlantic Spanish Maritime Provinces was brought to the island over the centuries, the most profound regional influence on the Spanish spoken in Puerto Rico has been from that spoken in the present-day Canary Islands. The Spanish of Puerto Rico also includes occasional Taíno words, typically in the context of vegetation, natural phenomena or primitive musical instruments. Similarly, words attributed to primarily West African languages were adopted in the contexts of foods, music or dances.[101]

Religion

There are many religious beliefs represented in the island. Religious breakdown in Puerto Rico (as of 2006) is given in the table on the right.[102]

Religion Adherents % of Population
Christian 3,752,544 97.00%
Non-religious/other 76,598 1.98%
Spiritist 27,080 0.70%
Muslim 5,029 0.13%
Hindu 3,482 0.09%
Jewish 2,708 0.07%
Buddhist 1,161 0.03%

The majority of Puerto Ricans in the island are Christians. Spiritists have a large secondary following. Muslims, Hindus, Jews, and Buddhists all have a small presence as well. Roman Catholicism has been the main Christian denomination among Puerto Ricans since the arrival of the Spanish in the 15th century, but the presence of Protestant, Mormon, Pentecostal, and Jehovah's Witnesses denominations has increased under U.S. sovereignty, making modern Puerto Rico an inter-denominational, multi-religious community. The Afro-Caribbean religion Santería is also practiced.

In 1998, a news report stated that "Puerto Rico [was] no longer predominantly Catholic". Pollster Pablo Ramos wrote that the population was 38% Roman Catholic, 28% Pentecostal, and 18% were members of independent churches.[103] However, an Associated Press article in March 2014 stated that "more than 70 percent of [Puerto Ricans] identify themselves as Catholic".[104] The CIA World Factbook reports that 85% of the population of Puerto Rico identifies as Roman Catholic, while 15% identify as Protestant and Other.[105]

Political and international status

Part of a series on
Puerto Ricans
"El Velorio" - 'The Wake' - by Puerto Rican impressionist artist Francisco Oller
By region or country
Subgroups
Culture
Religion
History
Language
flag Puerto Rico portal

Puerto Ricans became citizens of the United States as a result of the passage of the Jones–Shafroth Act of 1917. Since this law was the result of Congressional legislation, and not the result of an amendment to the United States Constitution, the current U.S. citizenship of Puerto Ricans can be revoked by Congress,[106] as they are statutory citizens, not 14th Amendment citizens.[107] The Jones Act established that Puerto Ricans born prior to 1899 were considered naturalized citizens of Puerto Rico, and anyone born after 1898 were U.S. citizens, unless the Puerto Rican expressed his/her intentions to remain a Spanish subject. Since 1948, it was decided by Congress that all Puerto Ricans, whether born within the United States or in Puerto Rico, were naturally born United States citizens.

Puerto Ricans and other U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico cannot vote in presidential elections as that is a right reserved by the U.S. Constitution to admitted states and the District of Columbia through the Electoral College system. Nevertheless, both the Democratic Party and Republican Party, while not fielding candidates for public office in Puerto Rico, provide the islands with state-sized voting delegations at their presidential nominating conventions. Delegate selection processes frequently have resulted in presidential primaries being held in Puerto Rico. U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico do not elect U.S. representatives or senators. However, Puerto Rico is represented in the House of Representatives by an elected representative commonly known as the Resident Commissioner, who has the same duties and obligations as a representative, with the exception of being able to cast votes on the final disposition of legislation on the House floor. The Resident Commissioner is elected by Puerto Ricans to a four-year term and does serve on congressional committee. Puerto Ricans residing in the U.S. states have all rights and privileges of other U.S. citizens living in the states.

As statutory U.S. citizens, Puerto Ricans born in Puerto Rico may enlist in the U.S. military and have been included in the compulsory draft when it has been in effect. Puerto Ricans have fully participated in all U.S. wars and military conflicts since 1898, including World War I, World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the Gulf War, the War in Afghanistan, and the Iraq War.

Since 2007, the Puerto Rico State Department has developed a protocol to issue certificates of Puerto Rican citizenship to Puerto Ricans. In order to be eligible, applicants must have been born in Puerto Rico; born outside of Puerto Rico to a Puerto Rican-born parent; or be an American citizen with at least one year residence in Puerto Rico. The citizenship is internationally recognized by Spain, which considers Puerto Rico to be an Ibero-American nation. Therefore, Puerto Rican citizens have the ability to apply for Spanish citizenship after only two years residency in Spain (instead of the standard 10 years).

Puerto Rican voters, despite not voting in the 2024 election for the President on the island, nevertheless were a surprisingly important political "hot potato" for both parties, due to the large number of Puerto Rican voters on the mainland.[108]

Decolonization and status referendums

Since 1953, the UN has been considering the political status of Puerto Rico and how to assist it in achieving "independence" or "decolonization." In 1978, the Special Committee determined that a "colonial relationship" existed between the US and Puerto Rico.[109]

The UN's Special Committee has referred often to Puerto Rico as a nation in its reports, because, internationally, the people of Puerto Rico are often considered to be a Caribbean nation with their own national identity.[110][111][112] Most recently, in a June 2016 report, the Special Committee called for the United States to expedite the process to allow self-determination in Puerto Rico. More specifically, the group called on the United States to expedite a process that would allow the people of Puerto Rico to exercise fully their right to self-determination and independence. ... allow the Puerto Rican people to take decisions in a sovereign manner, and to address their urgent economic and social needs, including unemployment, marginalization, insolvency and poverty".[113]

Puerto Rico has held four referendums to determine whether to retain its status as a territory or to switch to some other status such as statehood. The fourth, the Puerto Rican status referendum, 2012 occurred on November 6, 2012. The result a 54% majority of the ballots cast against the continuation of the island's territorial political status, and in favor of a new status. Of votes for new status, a 61.1% majority chose statehood.[114][115][116] This was by far the most successful referendum for statehood advocates. In all earlier referenda, votes for statehood were matched almost equally by votes for remaining an American territory, with the remainder for independence. Support for U.S. statehood has risen in each successive popular referendum.[117][118]

The fifth Puerto Rican status referendum of 2017, was held on June 11, 2017, and offered three options: "Statehood", "Independence/Free Association", and "Current Territorial Status." With 23% of registered voters casting ballots, 97% voted for statehood.[119] Benefits of statehood would include an additional $10 billion per year in federal funds, the right to vote in presidential elections, higher Social Security and Medicare benefits, and a right for its government agencies and municipalities to file for bankruptcy. The latter is currently prohibited.[120]

Even with the Puerto Ricans' vote for statehood, action by the United States Congress would be necessary to implement changes to the status of Puerto Rico under the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution.[120]

See also

Notes

  1. ^ The term Boricua is gender-neutral, whereas the terms Puertorriqueño, Borinqueño, Borincano, and Puertorro are male-specific when ending in «o» and female-specific when ending in «a».
  2. ^ The terms Boricua, Borinqueños, and Borincanos derive from «Borikén» and «Borinquen», indigenous Taíno names for Puerto Rico.
  3. ^ The term Puertorro -a is used popularly, spontaneously, and politely to refer to Puerto Ricans or Puerto Rico. It is occasionally mistaken for a pejorative, but the term is not considered offensive by Puerto Ricans. It has been most famously used by Puerto Rican musicians, including Bobby Valentín in his song Soy Boricua (1972), Andy Montañez in En Mi Puertorro (2006), and Bad Bunny in ACHO PR (2023).

References

  1. ^ "Nevada and Idaho Are the Nation's Fastest-Growing States". United States Census Bureau. December 19, 2018. Archived from the original on December 20, 2018. Retrieved December 30, 2018.
  2. ^ "Cumulative Population Change: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2017 for Puerto Rico". United States Census Bureau. July 1, 2017. Retrieved January 13, 2020.
  3. ^ "B03001 Hispanic or Latino Origin by Specific Origin - Puerto Rico - 2022 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates". U.S. Census Bureau. July 1, 2022. Retrieved September 21, 2023.
  4. ^ "B03001 HISPANIC OR LATINO ORIGIN BY SPECIFIC ORIGIN - United States - 2022 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates". U.S. Census Bureau. July 1, 2022. Retrieved September 21, 2023.
  5. ^ [1]
  6. ^ a b El panorama de la migración en República Dominicana: Cuadro 2.4. Los Haitianos son el principal grupo de inmigrantes
  7. ^ "2016 Census of Canada: Topic-based tabulations". 2.statcan.ca. April 2, 2011. Archived from the original on April 22, 2018. Retrieved May 20, 2016.
  8. ^ Los extranjeros en México Archived February 14, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  9. ^ Estadísticas Venezuela
  10. ^ "Bevolking; geslacht, leeftijd, generatie en migratieachtergrond". Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek (in Dutch). January 1, 2019. Archived from the original on May 7, 2022. Retrieved April 19, 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  11. ^ "Key findings about Puerto Rico". March 29, 2017.
  12. ^ "puertorriqueño, ña". Diccionario de la Lengua Española por la Real Academia Española (in Spanish). Retrieved January 19, 2024.
  13. ^ "puertorriqueño -ña". Diccionario de la Lengua Española por la Real Academia Española (in Spanish). Retrieved January 19, 2024.
  14. ^ "puertorriqueño". Diccionario de la Lengua Española por la Real Academia Española (in Spanish). Retrieved January 19, 2024.
  15. ^ "puertorro, -a". Asociación de Academias de la Lengua Española: Diccionario de Americanismos (in Spanish). Retrieved January 19, 2024.
  16. ^ [Puerto Rico is a melting pot of cultures -- Taíno (Native Indian), Spanish, African, and North American. How Ancient DNA Can Help Recast Colonial History: The people of pre-colonial Puerto Rico did not disappear entirely—a new study shows that the island’s residents still carry bits of their DNA.] The Atlantic. Ed Yong. September 18, 2019. Retrieved 3 October 2021.
  17. ^ Indigenous Puerto Rico: DNA evidence upsets established history: DNA evidence shows that most Puerto Ricans are a blending of Taino (Indian), Spanish and African according to studies by Dr. Juan Martinez-Cruzado. Rick Kearns Updated: Sep 13, 2018. Original: Sep 6, 2017. Retrieved 3 October 2021.
  18. ^ "La Comunidad » DOCUMENTALES GRATIS » UN ESTUDIO DEL GENOMA TAINO Y GUANCHE. ADN o DNA. Primera parte". February 6, 2010. Archived from the original on February 6, 2010.
  19. ^ "Your Regional Ancestry: Reference Populations". The Genographic Project. Archived from the original on February 27, 2017. Retrieved October 26, 2014.
  20. ^ Tang, Hua; Choudhry, Shweta; Mei, Rui; Morgan, Martin; Rodríguez-Clintron, William; González Burchard, Esteban; Risch, Neil (August 1, 2007). "Recent Genetic Selection in the Ancestral Admixture of Puerto Ricans". The American Journal of Human Genetics. 81 (3): 626–633. doi:10.1086/520769. PMC 1950843. PMID 17701908.
  21. ^ Via, Mark; Gignoux, Christopher R.; Roth, Lindsey; Fejerman, Laura; Galander, Joshua; Choudhry, Shweta; Toro-Labrador, Gladys; Viera-Vera, Jorge; Oleksyk, Taras K.; Beckman, Kenneth; Ziv, Elad; Risch, Neil; González Burchard, Esteban; Nartínez-Cruzado, Juan Carlos (2011). "History Shaped the Geographic Distribution of Genomic Admixture on the Island of Puerto Rico". PLOS ONE. 6 (1): e16513. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...616513V. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0016513. PMC 3031579. PMID 21304981.
  22. ^ "2010 Census". Medgar Evers College. Archived from the original on June 11, 2010. Retrieved April 13, 2010.
  23. ^ US Census Bureau: Table QT-P10 Hispanic or Latino by Type: 2010[dead link] Retrieved March 25, 2012 - select state from drop-down menu
  24. ^ [2] Archived February 10, 2020, at archive.today
  25. ^ [3] Archived June 6, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
  26. ^ A Population History of North America Archived February 3, 2017, at the Wayback Machine By Michael R. Haines, Richard H. Steckel
  27. ^ a b HISTORIA DE PUERTO RICO Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine Page 17.
  28. ^ An Account of the Present State of the Island of Puerto Rico Archived February 25, 2017, at the Wayback Machine By George D. Flinter (Page: 206)
  29. ^ Report on the census of Porto Rico, 1899 Archived July 16, 2017, at the Wayback Machine Census of "Porto Rico" (Old Spelling) Page 57.
  30. ^ a b c d [4]
  31. ^ a b "Quick Facts". US Census. Department of Commerce. 2016. Archived from the original on February 6, 2017. Retrieved February 21, 2017.
  32. ^ "Puerto Rico Virtual Jewish History Tour". Jewish Virtual Library. Archived from the original on December 26, 2015. Retrieved July 23, 2015.
  33. ^ Documenting the Myth of Taino Extinction. Dr. Lynne Guitar. KACIKE: Journal of Caribbean Amerindian History and Anthropology. Archived June 27, 2009, at the Wayback Machine Retrieved May 23, 2010.
  34. ^ Santullano, Luis A. (March 10, 2019). "El jíbaro". Mirada al Caribe (in Spanish). Vol. 54. Colegio de Mexico. pp. 79–82. doi:10.2307/j.ctvbcd2vs.13. JSTOR j.ctvbcd2vs.13.
  35. ^ a b c "Puerto Rico's History on race" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on February 7, 2012. Retrieved November 28, 2018.
  36. ^ "Representation of racial identity among Puerto Ricans and in the u.s. mainland". Archived from the original on December 12, 2012.
  37. ^ CIA World Factbook Retrieved June 8, 2009.
  38. ^ 2010.census.gov Archived July 5, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
  39. ^ Puerto Rico's Historical Demographics Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved November 10, 2011.
  40. ^ Alford, Natasha S. (February 9, 2020). "Why Some Black Puerto Ricans Choose 'White' on the Census". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved July 23, 2021.
  41. ^ Falcón in Falcón, Haslip-Viera and Matos-Rodríguez 2004: Ch. 6
  42. ^ Kinsbruner, Jay (February 22, 1996). Not of Pure Blood: The Free People of Color and Racial Prejudice in Nineteenth-century Puerto Rico. Duke University Press. ISBN 978-0822318422 – via Google Books.
  43. ^ "Mapping Puerto Rican Heritage with Spit and Genomics". Live Science. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved October 26, 2014.
  44. ^ "Cerca del 40% de los puertorriqueños con genes europeos descienden de Canarias". July 19, 2017.
  45. ^ a b Via, Marc; Gignoux, Christopher R.; Roth, Lindsay A.; et al. (January 2011). "History Shaped the Geographic Distribution of Genomic Admixture on the Island of Puerto Rico". PLOS ONE. 6 (1): e16513. Bibcode:2011PLoSO...616513V. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0016513. PMC 3031579. PMID 21304981.
  46. ^ "How Puerto Rico Became White" (PDF). SSC WISC Edu. University of Wisconsin-Madison. February 7, 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 23, 2017. Retrieved February 22, 2018.
  47. ^ a b "Your Regional Ancestry: Reference Populations". Archived from the original on February 27, 2017. Retrieved October 26, 2014.
  48. ^ a b González Burchard, E; Borrell, LN; Choudhry, S; et al. (December 2005). "Latino populations: a unique opportunity for the study of race, genetics, and social environment in epidemiological research". Am J Public Health. 95 (12): 2161–8. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2005.068668. PMC 1449501. PMID 16257940.
  49. ^ "Un estudio descubre la presencia de genes guanches en la República Dominicana". Archived from the original on December 16, 2018. Retrieved December 16, 2018.
  50. ^ "La Comunidad » DOCUMENTALES GRATIS » UN ESTUDIO DEL GENOMA TAINO Y GUANCHE. ADN o DNA. Primera parte". February 6, 2010. Archived from the original on February 6, 2010.
  51. ^ a b c "2010.census.gov". Archived from the original on July 6, 2011.
  52. ^ [5] Archived June 28, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
  53. ^ "The World Factbook". Cia.gov. Retrieved July 23, 2015.
  54. ^ "Department of Literatures in English | Department of Literatures in English | the University of the West Indies at Mona, Jamaica". www.mona.uwi.edu. Archived from the original on December 12, 2012. Retrieved January 27, 2022.
  55. ^ "The World Factbook — Central Intelligence Agency". Cia.gov. Retrieved October 14, 2017.
  56. ^ 2010.census.gov Archived March 24, 2011, at the Wayback Machine
  57. ^ "Racial Amnesia". March 3, 2016. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved October 14, 2017.
  58. ^ "MANUEL MORA MORALES: Canarios en Puerto Rico. CANARIAS EMIGRACIÓN". YouTube. January 20, 2008. Archived from the original on January 2, 2016. Retrieved July 23, 2015.
  59. ^ "The Spanish Of The Canary Islands". Personal.psu.edu. Archived from the original on September 24, 2015. Retrieved July 23, 2015.
  60. ^ a b Lipski, John M. (2005). A History of Afro-Hispanic Language: Five Centuries, Five Continents. middle of second paragraph under 'Africans in Puerto Rico': by Cambridge University Press. p. 115. ISBN 978-0-521-82265-7. Archived from the original on January 2, 2016. Retrieved December 26, 2015.
  61. ^ "How Puerto Rico Became White" (PDF). SSC WISC Edu. University of Wisconsin-Madison. February 7, 2006. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 23, 2017. Retrieved February 22, 2018.
  62. ^ "Explore Census Data". Archived from the original on April 4, 2019. Retrieved December 16, 2011.
  63. ^ a b Rivera, Melvin Gonzalez (August 3, 2015). "Spanish and English in Puerto Rico". Academia.edu. Archived from the original on November 18, 2019. Retrieved November 18, 2019.
  64. ^ 2010 Census Data - 2010 Census: 2010 Census Results, Puerto Rico. U.S. Department of Commerce. Bureau of the Census. Retrieved July 1, 2013.
  65. ^ [6]
  66. ^ a b "Genographic Project DNA Results Reveal Details of Puerto Rican History". National Geographic Society Newsroom. July 25, 2014. Archived from the original on March 24, 2020. Retrieved March 24, 2020.
  67. ^ Fregel R, Pestano J, Arnay M, Cabrera VM, Larruga JM, González AM (October 2009). "The maternal aborigine colonization of La Palma (Canary Islands)". European Journal of Human Genetics. 17 (10): 1314–24. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2009.46. PMC 2986650. PMID 19337312.
  68. ^ "Explore all countries". cia.gov. CIA. Retrieved February 26, 2021.
  69. ^ "Reconnecting The Circuit Of Puerto Rican Identity Through Music". NPR.org. November 2, 2014. Archived from the original on January 8, 2019. Retrieved June 4, 2020.
  70. ^ [7]
  71. ^ "History of Puerto Ricans In the US - PART TWO". Centro de Estudios Puertorriqueños. August 23, 2021. Retrieved September 4, 2021.
  72. ^ "Puerto Rican Migration Before World War II". Lehman College. Retrieved September 4, 2021.
  73. ^ "Teaching Guide for The History of Puerto Ricans in the U.S. - Part Two: Labor Migration and U.S. Policies" (PDF). Center for Puerto Rican Studies. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 20, 2021.
  74. ^ Wright, Micah (2016). "Building an Occupation: Puerto Rican Laborers in the Dominican Republic, 1916–1924". Labor. 13 (3–4): 83–103. doi:10.1215/15476715-3595964. S2CID 156241283.
  75. ^ [https://www.americansall.org/sites/default/files/resources/pdf/ethnic-and-cultural/9.9_Puerto_Ricans_Immigrants_and_Migrants.pdf}[permanent dead link]
  76. ^ Thomas, Lorrin (2015). "Puerto Ricans in the United States". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of American History. doi:10.1093/acrefore/9780199329175.013.32. ISBN 978-0-19-932917-5.
  77. ^ "B03001 HISPANIC OR LATINO ORIGIN BY SPECIFIC ORIGIN - United States - 2019 American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates". U.S. Census Bureau. July 1, 2019. Retrieved February 4, 2021.
  78. ^ "Migración a la inversa: Boricuas se establecen en Dominicana". September 30, 2013.
  79. ^ "Puertorriqueños emigran en masa hacia Dominicana". September 2018.
  80. ^ "En aumento emigración de puertorriqueños a República Dominicana". August 31, 2018.
  81. ^ "Puertorriqueños buscan nuevas oportunidades en República Dominicana | Video". May 16, 2019.
  82. ^ "U.S. Census Shows V.I. Aging, Growing More Hispanic | St. Thomas Source". stthomassource.com. Archived from the original on February 10, 2013. Retrieved January 13, 2022.
  83. ^ "Dominican Economy Lures Puerto Ricans in Crisis". Caribbean Business. January 25, 2016. Archived from the original on April 10, 2021. Retrieved September 4, 2021.
  84. ^ "De moda el que boricuas hagan negocios en Dominicana". October 2013.
  85. ^ "Empresarios de Puerto Rico buscan oportunidades de negocios en República Dominicana". December 2021.
  86. ^ "Empresarios de Puerto Rico llegan a RD en busca de oportunidades de negocios". November 30, 2021.
  87. ^ "Boricuas viven su retiro en República Dominicana". August 31, 2018.
  88. ^ [8]
  89. ^ "2016 Census of Canada: Topic-based tabulations". 2.statcan.ca. April 2, 2011. Archived from the original on April 22, 2018. Retrieved May 20, 2016.
  90. ^ Los extranjeros en México Archived February 14, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  91. ^ The Status of Languages in Puerto Rico. Archived October 10, 2017, at the Wayback Machine Muniz-Arguelles, Luis. University of Puerto Rico. 1986. Page 466. Retrieved December 4, 2012.
  92. ^ "Official Language," Concise Oxford Companion to the English Language, Ed. Tom McArthur, Oxford University Press, 1998.
  93. ^ Pueblo v. Tribunal Superior, 92 D.P.R. 596 (1965). Translation taken from the English text, 92 P.R.R. 580 (1965), p. 588-589. See also LOPEZ-BARALT NEGRON, "Pueblo v. Tribunal Superior: Espanol: Idioma del proceso judicial," 36 Revista Juridica de la Universidad de Puerto Rico. 396 (1967), and VIENTOS-GASTON, "Informe del Procurador General sobre el idioma," 36 Rev. Col. Ab. (P.R.) 843 (1975).
  94. ^ "U.S. Census Annual Population Estimates 2007". Factfinder.census.gov. Archived from the original on May 16, 2013. Retrieved April 18, 2014.
  95. ^ "Puerto Rico 2011-2015 American Community Survey 5-Year Estimates". US Census. Department of Commerce. 2016. Archived from the original on December 27, 1996. Retrieved February 19, 2017.
  96. ^ "Explore Census Data".
  97. ^ Puerto Rico Governor Luis Fortuño Proposes Plan For Island's Public Schools To Teach In English Instead Of Spanish. Archived August 31, 2012, at the Wayback Machine Danica Coto. Huffington Latino Voices. 05/08/12 (May 8, 2012). Retrieved December 4, 2012.
  98. ^ a b c d Quiñones, Frances Michelle (May 2021). Puerto Rican Sign Language: A Creole Language or an Endangered Dialect? (Master of Arts). Northeastern Illinois University. ProQuest 2529375168. Retrieved January 24, 2022.
  99. ^ Puerto Rican Sign Language at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
  100. ^ Torres, Andrés (2009). "Puerto Rican and Deaf: A View from the Borderland". Centro Journal. XXI (2): 85–107. ISSN 1538-6279. Retrieved January 25, 2022.
  101. ^ "Language Education Policy in Puerto Rico". Language Education Policy Studies. International Association for Language Education Policy Studies. 2013. Archived from the original on February 22, 2017. Retrieved February 21, 2017.
  102. ^ Religions Retrieved June 9, 2009. Archived November 2, 2014, at the Wayback Machine
  103. ^ The San Juan Star, Sunday, April 12, 1998: "Study reflects growing numbers of churchgoers".
  104. ^ Associated Press (March 12, 2014). "Catholic Church and Puerto Rico officials at odds in widening sex abuse investigation". FOX News. Archived from the original on February 18, 2017. Retrieved February 17, 2017.
  105. ^ "Puerto Rico - People and Society". CIA Library. CIA. 2015. Retrieved February 17, 2017. Roman Catholic 85%, Protestant and other 15%
  106. ^ Report By the President's Task Force On Puerto Rico's Status. Archived 2007-09-25 at the Wayback Machine The White House. Washington, D.C. Appendix E. December 2005. Retrieved May 17, 2012.
  107. ^ Latino/a Thought: Culture, Politics, and Society. Archived January 2, 2016, at the Wayback Machine Francisco H. Vazquez. Page 372. Lanham, Md: Rowman Littlefield Publishers. 2009. Retrieved May 25, 2012.
  108. ^ NBC News - Puerto Rico isn’t on the 2024 map, but Biden is betting big on voters from the island By Gabe Gutierrez March 22, 2024
  109. ^ López, Ana M. (2014). "Puerto Rico at the United Nations". The North American Congress on Latin America. Archived from the original on February 22, 2017. Retrieved February 21, 2017.
  110. ^ United Nations. General Assembly. Special Committee on the Situation With Regard to the Implementation of the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples (1971). Report of the Special Committee on the Situation with Regard to the Implementation of the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples. Vol. 23. United Nations Publications. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-92-1-810211-9.[permanent dead link]
  111. ^ XIV Ministerial Conference of the Movement of Non-Aligned Nations. Durban, South Africa, 2004. See pages 14–15. Archived 2009-07-31 at the Wayback Machine
  112. ^ United Nations. General Assembly. Special Committee on the Situation With Regard to the Implementation of the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples (1971). Report of the Special Committee on the Situation with Regard to the Implementation of the Declaration on the Granting of Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples. Vol. 23. United Nations Publications. pp. 10–11. ISBN 978-92-1-810211-9.[permanent dead link]
  113. ^ "Special Committee on Decolonization Approves Text Calling upon United States Government to Expedite Self-Determination Process for Puerto Rico". United Nations. June 20, 2016. Archived from the original on February 11, 2017. Retrieved February 21, 2017.
  114. ^ "Puerto Rico votes for U.S. statehood in non-binding referendum". CBS News. November 7, 2012. Archived from the original on November 4, 2013. Retrieved November 8, 2012.
  115. ^ "CEE Event". Archived from the original on November 7, 2012. Retrieved November 8, 2012.
  116. ^ "Puerto Rico vote could change ties to U.S." San Francisco Chronicle. Associated Press. November 4, 2012. Archived from the original on May 25, 2017. Retrieved November 8, 2012.
  117. ^ "An Introduction to Puerto Rico's Status Debate". Let Puerto Rico Decide. Archived from the original on February 16, 2012. Retrieved March 29, 2012.
  118. ^ Puerto Ricans favor statehood for first time Archived November 3, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, CNN, November 7, 2012
  119. ^ Robles, Frances (June 11, 2017). "23% of Puerto Ricans Vote in Referendum, 97% of Them for Statehood". New York Times. New York. Archived from the original on August 13, 2017. Retrieved August 12, 2017.
  120. ^ a b Coto, Danica (February 3, 2017). "Puerto Rico gov approves referendum in quest for statehood". Washington Post. DC. Archived from the original on February 4, 2017. Retrieved February 17, 2017.

Further reading

  • "Adiós, Borinquen querida": The Puerto Rican Diaspora, Its History, and Contributions, by Edna Acosta-Belen, et al. (Albany, New York: Center for Latino, Latin American, and Caribbean Studies, SUNY-Albany, 2000)
  • Boricua Hawaiiana: Puerto Ricans of Hawaii—Reflections of the Past and Mirrors of the Future, by Blase Camacho Souza (Honolulu: Puerto Rican Heritage Society of Hawaii, 1982)
  • Boricua Literature: A Literary History of the Puerto Rican Diaspora, by Lisa Sénchez González (New York: New York University Press, 2001)
  • Boricua Pop: Puerto Ricans and the Latinization of American Culture, by Frances Negrón-Muntaner (New York: New York University Press, 2004)
  • Yo soy Boricua in "United States of Banana", by Giannina Braschi (AmazonCrossing, 2011)
  • Boricuas: Influential Puerto Rican Writings, by Roberto Santiago (New York: One World, 1995)
  • Boricuas in Gotham: Puerto Ricans in the Making of Modern New York City, edited by Gabriel Haslip-Viera, Angelo Falcón and Félix Matos Rodríguez (Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers, 2004)
  • Taino-tribe.org, PR Taíno DNA study
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Puerto_Ricans&oldid=1256368286"