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History of African Americans in Omaha in the 19th century

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Matthew Ricketts in 1890

The history of African-Americans in Omaha in the 19th Century begins with "York", a slave belonging to William Clark of the Lewis and Clark Expedition who came through the area in 1804, before the city existed. African-Americans have lived in the Omaha area since at least 1819, when fur traders lived in the area.

After the American Civil War (1861-1865), many blacks moved to the city. They joined together, forming numerous black churches and black social and political organizations. Father John Albert Williams moved to Omaha in 1891 and became a fixture in black religious life. Omaha also produced Nebraska's first two black school teachers, Lucy Gamble and Eula Overall.

Three black newspapers were formed in the city in the last part of the century. They were founded by George F. Franklin, Thomas P. Mahammitt, and Ferdinand L. Barnett respectively. Many Omahans participated in the founding of the National Afro-American League in 1890. African-Americans also played a prominent role in the 1898 Trans-Mississippi Exposition.

The city produced some of Nebraska's most politically active African-Americans, producing nominees to stand as candidates for state legislature. The earliest such candidate stood for office in 1880. In 1890, Edwin R. Overall was accepted by a party to stand as a candidate for the legislature. Nebraska's first black state legislator, Matthew Ricketts was finally elected in 1892.

Before Omaha's African-American residents gathered in North Omaha, they lived dispersed throughout the city. In the 1860s, the U.S. Census showed 81 "Negroes" in Nebraska, ten of whom were slaves. By 1880 there were nearly 800 black residents, many recruited by Union Pacific Railroad as strikebreakers. By 1884 there three black churches had been founded. By 1900 there were 3,443 black residents, in a total city population of 102,555.[1]

Pre-Civil War

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The first recorded instance of a black person in the Omaha area occurred in 1804. "York" was a slave belonging to William Clark of the Lewis and Clark Expedition.[2] The presence of several black people, probably slaves, was recorded in the area comprising North Omaha today when Major Stephen H. Long's expedition arrived at Fort Lisa in September 1819. They reportedly lived at the post and in neighboring farmsteads.[3]

After a short history of slavery in Nebraska, the first free black person to live in Omaha was Sally Bayne, who moved to Omaha in 1854.[4] A clause in the original proposed Nebraska State Constitution from 1854 limited voting rights in the state to "free white males", which kept Nebraska from entering the Union for almost a year. In the 1860s, the U.S. Census showed 81 "Negroes" in Nebraska, ten of whom were accounted for as slaves.[5] At that time, the majority of the population lived in Omaha and Nebraska City.

Some of the earliest African-American residents of the city may have arrived by the Underground Railroad via a small log cabin outside of Nebraska City built by Allen Mayhew in 1855. It is honored today as the Mayhew Cabin Museum. One report says, "Henry Daniel Smith, born in Maryland in 1835, still living in Omaha in 1913 and working at his trade of broom-maker, was one escaped slave who entered Nebraska via the Underground Railroad."[6]

Early culture

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St. John's AME Church today

By 1867 enough blacks gathered in community to found St. John's African Methodist Episcopal Church in the Near North Side neighborhood. It was the first church for African Americans in Nebraska.[7] The first recorded birth of an African American in Omaha occurred in 1872, when William Leper was born.[8]

The Old Trinity Mission worked under the direction of Dean Millspaugh starting in late 1879, meeting in the old Cossens House and in 1881, Rev. W. Green was pastor.[9] St. Philip's was announced to be formed out of a chapel of the old Trinity Cathedral in April, 1882, and to eventually exist as a separate structure.[10] In 1891, Father John Albert Williams came to Omaha to serve the congregation at St. Philips.

George T. McPherson was known as Omaha's first prominent black musician, arriving in Omaha in the early 1870s and opening a music studio there.[11] Mcpherson was called by Thomas P. Mahammitt's Enterprise "the leading pianist of the [African-American] race".[12]

In 1879, John Lewis organized a brass band initially consisting of eleven members and instructed by professor Toozer. The band adopted the name, "Lewis' Excelsior Brass Band" and had Lewis as president, Cyrus D. Bell as secretary, Frank Bellmay as assistant secretary and D. H. Johnson as treasurer.[13] Toozer was a drummer in the British Army Band in the Crimean War and was the leader of the Union Pacific Band, where he was an employee from 1867 to 1905.[14] Lewis' brass band played at numerous celebrations, including the 1880 15th Amendment anniversary celebration[15] and the August 4, 1887 anniversary of Emancipation[16]

Party politics

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Black men and women quickly formed political, social, and community organizations. In June 1870, Richard D. Curry was voted in Omaha's Third Ward as Republican candidate for Trustee or Alderman, but white Omaha Republican's opposed Curry's selection and nominated someone else. This created a good deal of distrust of Republican's in Omaha by blacks. A committee of black citizens in Omaha chaired by John Lewis and with G. G. Iredell as secretary was formed to encourage blacks to distance themselves from party politics and to vote more independently. This was in particular a response to the rejection by the Republican Party of Curry's candidacy.[17]

Edwin Overall in 1890

In January, 1876, Edwin R. Overall, William R. Gamble, and Rev W. H. Wilson organized a State Convention of Colored men. The convention met to discuss lynching and to select delegates for the national convention to be held in Nashville later that year. Overall, Dr. W. H. C. Stephenson, Wilson, and Gamble were selected as delegates, with Curry, John Lewis, Calvin Montgomery, and P. Hampton as alternates. Wilson served as president of the meeting, Curry, Lewis, and J. C. Boone as vice presidents, and Cyrus D. Bell as secretary.[18] However, in February of that year, Curry attacked Edward Rosewater, then editor of the Omaha Bee for calling his saloon a "den".[19] Curry was imprisoned for the assault and his public career came to an end[20]

Democrat Cyrus D. Bell, an ex-slave, was proposed for city, county, legislative, or state office by the Anti-Republican Omaha Herald in 1878, although this proposal was meant to show that Republicans in the city had poor commitment to black rights in Omaha, the Democratic paper, Omaha Herald commenting that "hundreds of colored men are constantly disfranchised from holding office by the Republican party whilst casting a solid vote and giving power to that party.".[21] Throughout his life, Bell frequently voiced his frustration at the Republican Party in Nebraska for failing to promote black candidates for elected and appointed offices,[22][23] a cause in which Bell was joined by C. E. Burke[24]

In the late 1860s, Edwin R. Overall moved from Chicago to Omaha. Overall had been working for black betterment since before the civil war, and along with Bell was frequently chosen to represent the Omaha black community. In a March 30, 1879 celebration of the anniversary of the ratification of the fifteenth amendment at the Masonic Hall, Overall and Bell spoke. Overall emphasized the ascendance of ex-confederates to federal elective office, while characteristically, Bell focused on the need for blacks to vote independently and that emancipation alone did not bring blacks to full citizenship.[25] Other leaders in the community included Emanuel S. Clenlans, H. W. Coesley, and Gabriel Young.[26]

In the 1870s, Omaha became a destination of the great migration, black migration to Nebraska and Kansas was a particularly noted public issue in 1879 when a large group of migrants arrived in the city.[27]

Republican organization

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In spite of Bell's dissent, black Republicans in Omaha became quite organized by 1880. In August of that year, a delegation of Omaha blacks attended the state Republican convention.[28] Also that month, a meeting of a "State Convention of Colored Americans" met, this was part of the Colored Conventions Movement and was led by Overall, Dr. W. H. C. Stephenson, James O. Adams, John R. Simpson, Peter Williams, Benjamin Fulton and Rev. E. H. Brown of Lincoln.[29] Overall was put forward by the group as a candidate for the state legislature.[30] That year, both Overall and Stephenson sought nomination for candidate for State Legislature but their contesting efforts divided the community and they were denied by the Republican Party.[31]

Overall's daughters eventually became teachers in Kansas City and in Omaha (Eula was a teacher in Omaha from 1898-1903), but in 1880, one of them was not confirmed in her candidacy.[32] In late October, 1882, Stephenson was endorsed by a convention of Omaha blacks to be nominated as a republican candidate for the legislature, Overall possibly declined to be considered. Overall and C. C. Cary created a group called the Workingmen's Central Committee[33] where Overall was endorsed for this nomination. Cyrus D. Bell felt that this was irregular and protested that Overall was achieving his nomination by unfair methods.[34] Overall was selected at the first State Convention of blacks ever held in Nebraska to be a delegate to the National Convention of Colored Men in Nashville on April 5, along with Dr. W. H. C. Stephenson, William R. Gamble (father of Lucy Gamble, who was Omaha's first black teacher, teaching from 1895 to 1901), and the Rev. W. W. H. Wilson[35] W. G. Robinson (Nebraska City), Major Moore (Lincoln), and W. R. Gamble (Omaha) were elected as delegates to the National Convention of Colored Men, at Louisville, Ky., September 24, 1883,"[36]

In the 1880s, Overall became active in organized labor. He joined the Knights of Labor,[37] and led black organized labor groups in the city. In 1890, Overall finally gained the Republican nomination for the state legislature and received the endorsement of the labor party,[38] but he lost the election. The local black press believed that if white Republican's in his district had voted for him, he would have been elected, and thus it was believed his loss resulted from racist voting by Omaha Republicans.[39] In 1893, as a Populist candidate on a pro-labor platform, Overall ran for a position on the Omaha City Council.[40]

Journalism

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Cover of The Progress, June 21, 1890

The black community created a number of newspapers. The first was the Progress, established in 1889 by Ferdinand L. Barnett and contributed to by his brother, Alfred S. Barnett. Cyrus D. Bell established the Afro-American Sentinel in 1892. In 1893 George F. Franklin started publishing the Enterprise, later published by Thomas P. Mahammitt. It was the longest lived of any of the early African American newspapers published in Omaha.

The Sentinel was noted in its pro-Democratic stance in contrast to the Republican Progress and Enterprise, and the three papers became rivals. An example of their difference occurred in 1895 in the wake of Booker T. Washington's Atlanta Compromise Speech. Barnett's Progress opposed any sort of compromise, Franklin's Enterprise supported Washington's leadership in making a compromise, while Bell's Sentinel strongly endorsed Washington's position.[41]

Afro-American League

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Silas Robbins in 1890

In late 1889 and early 1890, Chicago's T. Thomas Fortune called for the organization of local leagues for the purpose of the advancement of blacks which would meet in January 1890 to form the National Afro-American League. On January 9, 1890, a meeting was held in Omaha to this effect. Overall was elected chairman of the meeting.[42] There was a disagreement over the local league's constitution. While Adams supported Overall, Matthew O. Ricketts, Walker, and Bell loudly opposed Overall's domination of the writing of the constitution. Ricketts initially opposed the idea that whites could be allowed in the league, fearing they could dominate it, but Walker supported that clause convincingly. There was also a debate over dues. Ricketts, A. S. Barnett, and Thomas were selected to be the local league's delegates to the national convention of the league and Silas Robbins would attend the national convention as a delegate from the Republican Colored Club.[43] Eventually, Ricketts, A. L. Bennet, S. G. Thomas, Robbins, and Overall attended. At the meeting, Overall served on the Committee on Credentials, Ricketts on the Committee on Permanent Organization and the Executive Committee, Robbins on the Address Committee, and A. Thomas as a Sergeant-at-arms.

At the meeting, Ricketts gave a noted speech, saying: "The use of which has been made of the Afro-American voter by all political parties has been proverbial. We have helped by our efforts to carry men into power who, when secure in the results of our efforts, have done nothing for us. I am reminded of the old colored man who went to heaven's gate and asked for admittance. 'Are you afoot or horseback,' asked St. Peter. 'I'm afoot.' said the suppliant. 'Then you can't come in,' said the doorkeeper. The Afro-American went back down the hill and met the Honorable 'Billy' Mahone who said he could arrange it all right. 'You go down on your hands and knees and I'll ride up to the door and then we'll both go in,' he said to the colored brother. So they came to the gate. To the question of the saint, Mahone said he was riding and not afoot. 'Well,' said St. Peter, 'tie your horse outside and come in.' Gentlemen, we have been hewers of wood for years, but we haven't been near the fire; we have been drawers of water, but have gone thirsty. Let us be of no party but the Afro-American party."[44]

Alfred S. Barnett in 1890

April 30, 1890, Omaha leaders called for a meeting of black Nebraskans to discuss issues relating to equal rights, to form a permanent state league, and to support black people seeking to move to Nebraska to purchase homes and farms. The meeting was called by A. S. Barnett (Omaha), M. O. Ricketts (Omaha), H. Curry (Omaha), G. F. Franklin (Omaha), B. F. C. Albert (Linsoln), Edward Jones (Columbus), Jerry Smith (Blair), J. S. Shannon (Blair), J. C. Boone (Plattsmouth), George W. Slater Sr (Aurora), Benjamine Snell (Chadron), R. E. Allen (Overton), Abe Williams (Schuyler), and J. S. Webb (Ansley).[45] Among the issues discussed at this State Afro-American League meeting were segregated restaurants, segregated barbers, and segregated public houses. Southern oppression and northern caste were denounced. An important division at the meeting was the call made by Cyrus Bell and supported by Matthew Ricketts that blacks no longer give their full support to the Republicans, but, rather vote their conscience. The motion was especially disliked by delegates who did not live in Omaha[46]

Early successes

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Violence against blacks was a great cause for concern in the community and was a frequent topic at meetings and from the pulpit. In 1891, George Smith (aka Joe Coe, a convicted rapist) was lynched in Omaha and in 1894, Sam Payne (convicted murderer of Maud Rubel) was threatened with lynching. Local leaders James Alexander, Rickets, Richard Gamble, and Bell were outspoken in condemnation of the lynching in Omaha and Payne's safety was assured.[47]

On September 20, 1894, Ida B. Wells came to speak and organize a branch of the anti-lynching league in Omaha.[48] In December 1894 the Anti-Lynching league was founded with John Albert Williams as president. In that role, Williams frequently sought to calm Omaha's black community in the face of racial tensions, such as during the Spring Valley, Illinois black-Italian labor war in August 1895.[49]

In 1892, Dr. Matthew Ricketts was the first black person elected to serve in the Nebraska Legislature, serving two consecutive terms. In 1895 Silas Robbins was the first black lawyer admitted to the Nebraska State Bar Association.

Ella Mahammitt in 1896

Another division in the community occurred in 1895, when G. F. Franklin was appointed Inspector of Weights and Measures with the support of the Thomas and Ella Mahammitt and against the protest of Bell. A contributing cause was a dispute involving money in a social club of which Franklin and Bell were both members.[50]

Ophelia Clenlans

Later in 1895, Ella Mahammitt (wife of Thomas P. Mahammitt) traveled to The First National Conference of the Colored Women of America held on August 26, 1895 in Berkeley Hall, Boston, Massachusetts on July 29–31, 1895, called by the Woman's Era Club of Boston. The focus of the convention was the education of black children and the group named themselves the National Federation of Afro-American Women.[51] She was elected as Vice-President representing the West at the meeting.[52] At the meeting, Mahammitt worked closely with Margaret James Murray, wife of Booker T. Washington. In 1896 was a committee member of the successor organization, the National Association of Colored Women under president Mary Church Terrell. Other female African American leaders in Omaha included Ophelia Clenlans, Nettie Johnson, Laura Craig, Clara Franklin, Lucy Gamble, and Comfort Baker. Along with Mahammitt, Clenlans, Johnson, Craig, and Franklin were officers of Mahammitt's Omaha Colored Womens club in 1896. All seven women contributed to an Easter edition of The Enterprise in 1896 which was entirely produced by women.[53]

Trans-Mississippi Exhibition

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Night view of the Grand Court of the Trans-Mississippi Exhibition, Omaha. Photograph by Frank Rinehart, 1898.

In the late 1890s, Omaha blacks sought to use the 1897 Tennessee Centennial and International Exposition in Nashville and the 1898 Trans-Mississippi Exposition in Omaha to bring attention to the role of African Americans in Nebraska. J. C. C. Owens, M. O. Ricketts, T. P. Mahammitt, Franklin, George E. Collins, John Wright, J. W. Long all played key roles in organizing the initial efforts.[54] They succeeded in sending a delegation to the Tennessee exhibition, and in securing central presence of African-Americans in the Omaha exhibition. Edwin R. Overall, John Albert Williams, and Cyrus D. Bell worked to bring a convention of the National Colored Personal Liberty League led by Henry Clay Hawkings to Omaha August 17, 1898 during the Trans-Mississippi Exposition.,[55] and there was a "Congress of Representatives of White and Colored Americans"[56] and a meeting of the National Colored Press Association on August 22[57] and a meeting of the Western Negro Press Association. A the meeting of the Western Negro Press Association, John Albert Williams was selected first vice president and Bell was selected treasurer[58]

The relationship between erstwhile political allies G. F. Franklin, F. L. Barnett, M. F. Singleton, and M. O. Ricketts fractured in the buildup to the expositions over the lack of inclusion of blacks in the city's organizational ranks. In The Progress, Barnett considered Singleton and Franklin's support for the expositions hypocritical, as Franklin was slow in paying his stock subscription to the exposition and did not press enough for employment of blacks in the build up to the exposition. Franklin countered that Matthew Ricketts, who was a member of the state house of representatives, was not doing enough to push for black employment in government positions, and that The Progress should question its support for Ricketts.[59] In The Sentinel, Cyrus D. Bell, Omaha's pre-eminent black Democrat, felt that Ricketts' greed for power was at the root of the problem and was critical of Franklin as well[60]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Quintard Taylor, In Search Of The Racial Frontier: African Americans in the American West, 1528–1990, New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 1998, pp. 193 and 205.
  2. ^ Multiethnic Guide. Archived 2007-09-26 at the Wayback Machine Greater Omaha Economic Partnership. Retrieved October 28, 2007.
  3. ^ Federal Writers Project. (1939) "The Negro comes to Nebraska" Archived 2021-10-26 at the Wayback Machine, Negroes in Nebraska. Retrieved May 13, 2008.
  4. ^ Pipher, M. (2002) "Chapter One Archived 2007-08-16 at the Wayback Machine," The Middle of Everywhere: Helping Refugees Enter the American Community. Harcourt.
  5. ^ (1938) Authur Goodlett. American Life Histories: Manuscripts from the Federal Writers' Project, 1936–1940. Retrieved October 29, 2007.
  6. ^ (2003) "The Negroes of Nebraska: Immigration" Archived 2008-05-09 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved October 29, 2007.
  7. ^ (2003) "The Negroes of Nebraska: The Negro goes to church" Archived 2007-09-27 at the Wayback Machine. Memorial Library. Retrieved October 29, 2007.
  8. ^ (1895) "Negroes in Omaha," Omaha Progress February 21, 1895. Retrieved from the Great Plains Black History Museum on May 6, 1998.
  9. ^ Old Trinity Mission the Growth of a Labor among the Colored People. Omaha Herald (Omaha, Nebraska). Sunday, May 1, 1881. Volume: XVI Issue: 175 Page: 8
  10. ^ St. Philips the New Chapel for the Colored People of Old Trinity Mission. Omaha Herald (Omaha, Nebraska). Friday, April 21, 1882. Volume: XVII Issue: 147 Page: 8
  11. ^ Papers of the WPA Omaha Ne. City Guide Project, Negro musical development. Chapter 8. Dr. C. C. and Mabel L. Criss Library Digital Collections, University of Nebraska, Omaha accessed March 15, 2016 at http://unomaha.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15301coll1/id/321 Archived 2016-10-08 at the Wayback Machine
  12. ^ Masons In Favor. Excelsior Club Entertainment Is A Grand Success. Enterprise (Omaha, Nebraska). Saturday, February 13, 1897. Page: 1
  13. ^ The Colored Brass Band. Omaha Herald (Omaha, Nebraska). Thursday, November 27, 1879. Volume: XV Issue: 41 Page: 8
  14. ^ Poast, Gene. Union Pacific Band 1871. Accessed March 10, 2016 at http://up150.com/stories/423/union-pacific-band-1871 Archived 2016-03-16 at the Wayback Machine
  15. ^ Town Talk. Omaha Herald (Omaha, Nebraska). Friday, April 2, 1880. Volume: XX Issue: 148 Page: 8
  16. ^ The Emancipation Anniversary. Omaha World-Herald (Omaha, Nebraska). Wednesday, July 27, 1887. Page: 1
  17. ^ The Colored People Of Omaha. Daily Nebraska Press (Nebraska City, Nebraska). Tuesday, June 14, 1870. Page: 2
  18. ^ The Colored Men. A State Convention Held In Omaha Yesterday. The Proceedings--Officers Elected--Addresses. Daily Nebraska Press (Nebraska City, Nebraska). Wednesday, January 19, 1876. Page: 4
  19. ^ That Assault. Mr. Edward Rosewater Lies in a Very Critical Condition. A Murderous Assault Made. Daily Nebraska Press (Nebraska City, Nebraska). Thursday, February 17, 1876. Page: 4
  20. ^ Scratching the Old Sores. All the Bad Blood between Rosewater and Van Der Voort Flowing Afresh. Omaha World-Herald (Omaha, Nebraska).Saturday, January 18, 1890. Volume: XXV Issue: 110 Page: 5
  21. ^ Why is This So the Almighty Negro. Omaha Herald (Omaha, Nebraska). Thursday, December 5, 1878. Volume: XIV Issue: 47 Page: 4
  22. ^ How is This for High Some Very Pungent Remarks of a Colored Man. Omaha Herald (Omaha, Nebraska). Saturday, February 8, 1879. Volume: XIV Issue: 100 Page: 8
  23. ^ A Little History Which a Colored Man Relates for the Benefit of Republicans. Omaha Herald (Omaha, Nebraska). Friday, February 28, 1879. Volume: XIV Issue: 116 Page: 2
  24. ^ The Negro What Has the Republican Party Done for Him. Omaha Herald (Omaha, Nebraska). Wednesday, March 26, 1879. Volume: XIV Issue: 138 Page: 3
  25. ^ From Slaves to Citisens the Anniversary of the Signing of the Elective Franchise Observed by the Colored People. Omaha Herald (Omaha, Nebraska). Thursday, April 3, 1879. Volume: XIV Issue: 143 Page: 8
  26. ^ Meeting of Colored People. Omaha Herald (Omaha, Nebraska). Friday, September 12, 1879. Volume: XIV Issue: 282 Page: 8
  27. ^ A Colored Ripple or a Slack Wave. Omaha Herald (Omaha, Nebraska). Tuesday, April 22, 1879. Volume: XIV Issue: 159 Page: 4
  28. ^ The delegates were: first ward - Peter Williams, W. W. Porter, W. H. C. Stephenson; second ward - George Bolden, E. R. Overall, and R. W. Bell; third ward - J. O. Adams, John Lewis, B. Sanders; fourth ward - Albert Kercheval, Frank Bellamy, T. Hargreaves; sixth ward - E. S. Clenlans, W. H. Butler, John R. Simpson; Saratoga precinct - Smith Coffee. Colored Republicans. Omaha Herald (Omaha, Nebraska). Friday, August 20, 1880. Volume: XV Issue: 267 Page: 8
  29. ^ Colored Republican. They Meet at Omaha in State Convention. Omaha Herald (Omaha, Nebraska). Wednesday, September 1, 1880. Volume: XV Issue: 277 Page: 8
  30. ^ [No Headline]. Omaha Herald (Omaha, Nebraska). Thursday, October 21, 1880. Volume: XVI Issue: 10 Page: 4
  31. ^ The Colored Voters. Omaha Daily Bee (Omaha, NE), November 05, 1882, Page 2
  32. ^ [No Headline]. Omaha Herald (Omaha, Nebraska). Saturday, December 4, 1880. Volume: XVI Issue: 47 Page: 4
  33. ^ The Colored Voters. Omaha Daily Bee (Omaha, NE), November 05, 1882, Page 2
  34. ^ Overall. Omaha Herald (Omaha, Nebraska). Saturday, November 4, 1882. Volume: XVIII Issue: 30 Page: 8
  35. ^ Here and There. Brevities over the Wires from Various Places. Daily Inter Ocean (Chicago, Illinois). Wednesday, January 19, 1876. Volume: IV Issue: 257 Page: 5
  36. ^ Nebraska Notes. Election Of Delegates To The National Convention. People's Advocate (Washington (DC), District of Columbia). Saturday, August 18, 1883. Page: 2
  37. ^ In the Interests of Labor. Omaha World-Herald (Omaha, Nebraska). Sunday, July 27, 1890. Page: 1
  38. ^ Personal And Political. New York Age (New York, New York). Saturday, October 18, 1890. Page: 2
  39. ^ Echoes Of The Election. Lessons Drawn from Republican Defeat by Afro-American Editors Throughout the County. New York Age (New York, New York). Saturday, November 22, 1890. Page: 2
  40. ^ Voice of Colored Votes. Omaha World-Herald (Omaha, Nebraska). Tuesday, October 31, 1893. Page: 4
  41. ^ Forss, Amy Helene. Black Print with a White Carnation: Mildred Brown and the Omaha Star Newspaper, 1938-1989. U of Nebraska Press, Jan 1, 2014, p 86
  42. ^ Other leaders at the meeting were J. O. Adams, Price Saunders, E. S. Clemens, Cyrus D. Bell, W. B. Walker, Parker, Alfred S. Barnett, W. G. Woodbey, F. Lewis, Dr. Stephens, Alfonso Wilson, Fred Thomas, Silas Robbins, and Dr. Ricketts.
  43. ^ Have Too Many Great Men. Omaha World-Herald (Omaha, Nebraska). Friday, January 10, 1890. Page: 3
  44. ^ The League Convention. A National Organization Perfected At Chicago. One Hundred and Forty-One Delegates Present. New York Age (New York, New York). Saturday, January 25, 1890. Page: 1
  45. ^ To The Colored Citizens Of Nebraska. Progress (Omaha, Nebraska). Saturday, March 22, 1890. Page: 2
  46. ^ Shall they Break Away? Omaha World-Herald (Omaha, Nebraska). Thursday, May 1, 1890. Page: 8
  47. ^ Denounced Lynching. Colored Citizens Pass Resolutions on the Practice Date: Friday, June 29, 1894 Paper: Omaha World-Herald (Omaha, Nebraska) Page: 4
  48. ^ Miss Wells' Crusade. How She Started out on an Anti-Lynching Crusade, Omaha World-Herald (Omaha, Nebraska) Thursday, September 20, 1894, Volume: 29, Page: 2
  49. ^ What Omaha Thinks of it. Colored People and Italians Talk of the Disturbance, Omaha World-Herald (Omaha, Nebraska), Thursday, August 8, 1895, Volume: XXX, Issue: 312, Page: 1
  50. ^ A Public Statement. Enterprise (Omaha, Nebraska). Saturday, February 22, 1896 Page: 2
  51. ^ Colored Women's Convention. Enterprise (Omaha, Nebraska). Saturday, August 17, 1895 Page: 2
  52. ^ Woman's Column. Enterprise (Omaha, Nebraska). Saturday, August 24, 1895. Page: 3
  53. ^ Women's Easter Edition. Enterprise (Omaha, Nebraska). Saturday, April 4, 1896
  54. ^ Centennial Committee Organized. Enterprise (Omaha, Nebraska). Saturday, January 23, 1897. Page: 2
  55. ^ For an Ethical Conference. Omaha Daily Bee (Omaha, NE), July 24, 1898, Part I, Page 5
  56. ^ Congress of Representatives White and Colored Americans. Iowa State Bystander (Des Moines, Iowa). Friday, April 22, 1898. Page: 1
  57. ^ Colored American Day. Planning for a Large Attendance and a Good Time. Omaha World-Herald (Omaha, Nebraska). Wednesday, August 10, 1898. Volume: XXXIII Issue: 314 Page: 5
  58. ^ Western Negro. Western Christian Recorder (Kansas City, Kansas). Saturday, August 27, 1898. Page: 2
  59. ^ Revelations. Enterprise (Omaha, Nebraska). Saturday, June 19, 1897. Page: 2
  60. ^ Be Cautions Gentlemen. Afro-American Sentinel (Omaha, Nebraska). Saturday, July 31, 1897. Page: 4
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Further reading

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  • Angus, J. (2004) Black and Catholic in Omaha: A Case of Double Jeopardy: The First Fifty Years of St. Benedict the Moor Parish. iUniverse, Inc.
  • Bish, James D. (1989) The Black Experience in Selected Nebraska Counties, 1854–1920. M.A. Thesis, University of Nebraska at Omaha.
  • Mihelich, Dennis. (1979) "World War II and the Transformation of the Omaha Urban League," Nebraska History 60(3) (Fall 1979):401–423.
  • Paz, D.G. (1988) "John Albert Williams and Black Journalism in Omaha, 1895–1929." Midwest Review 10: 14–32.
  • Johnson, T. (2001) African American Administration of predominantly Black Schools: Segregation or Emancipation in Omaha, NE. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the Association for the Study of African American Life and History in Charlotte, NC.
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