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This article is about the academic discipline. For a general history of human beings, see Human history. For a general history of Earth, see History of Earth. For other uses, see History (disambiguation).

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History (derived from Ancient Greek ἱστορία (historía) 'inquiry; knowledge acquired by investigation')[1] is the systematic study and documentation of the human past.[2][3] History is an academic discipline which uses a narrative to describe, examine, question, and analyze past events, and investigate their patterns of cause and effect.[4][5] Historians debate which narrative best explains an event, as well as the significance of different causes and effects. Historians debate the nature of history as an end in itself, and its usefulness in giving perspective on the problems of the present.[4][6][7][8]

The period of events before the invention of writing systems is considered prehistory.[9] "History" is an umbrella term comprising past events as well as the memory, discovery, collection, organization, presentation, and interpretation of these events. Historians seek knowledge of the past using historical sources such as written documents, oral accounts or traditional oral histories, art and material artifacts, and ecological markers.[10]

Stories common to a particular culture, but not supported by external sources (such as the tales surrounding King Arthur), are usually classified as cultural heritage or legends.[11][12] History differs from myth in that it is supported by verifiable evidence. However, ancient cultural influences have helped create variant interpretations of the nature of history, which have evolved over the centuries and continue to change today. The modern study of history is wide-ranging, and includes the study of specific regions and certain topical or thematic elements of historical investigation. History is taught as a part of primary and secondary education, and the academic study of history is a major discipline in universities.

Herodotus, a 5th-century BCE Greek historian, is often considered the "father of history", as one of the first historians in the Western tradition,[13] though he has been criticized as the "father of lies".[14][15] Along with his contemporary Thucydides, he helped form the foundations for the modern study of past events and societies.[16] Their works continue to be read today, and the gap between the culture-focused Herodotus and the military-focused Thucydides remains a point of contention or approach in modern historical writing. In East Asia a state chronicle, the Spring and Autumn Annals, was reputed to date from as early as 722 BCE, though only 2nd-century BCE texts have survived. The title "father of history" has also been attributed, in their respective societies, to Sima Qian, Ibn Khaldun, and Kenneth Dike.[17][18][19]

Etymology

History by Frederick Dielman (1896)

The word history comes from historía (Ancient Greek: ἱστορία, romanized: historíā, lit. 'inquiry, knowledge from inquiry, or judge'[20]). It was in that sense that Aristotle used the word in his History of Animals.[21] The ancestor word ἵστωρ is attested early on in Homeric Hymns, Heraclitus, the Athenian ephebes' oath, and in Boeotic inscriptions (in a legal sense, either "judge" or "witness", or similar). The Greek word was borrowed into Classical Latin as historia, meaning "investigation, inquiry, research, account, description, written account of past events, writing of history, historical narrative, recorded knowledge of past events, story, narrative". History was borrowed from Latin (possibly via Old Irish or Old Welsh) into Old English as stær ("history, narrative, story"), but this word fell out of use in the late Old English period.[22] Meanwhile, as Latin became Old French (and Anglo-Norman), historia developed into forms such as istorie, estoire, and historie, with new developments in the meaning: "account of the events of a person's life (beginning of the 12th century), chronicle, account of events as relevant to a group of people or people in general (1155), dramatic or pictorial representation of historical events (c. 1240), body of knowledge relative to human evolution, science (c. 1265), narrative of real or imaginary events, story (c. 1462)".[22]

It was from Anglo-Norman that history was brought into Middle English, and it has persisted. It appears in the 13th-century Ancrene Wisse, but seems to have become a common word in the late 14th century, with an early attestation appearing in John Gower's Confessio Amantis of the 1390s (VI.1383): "I finde in a bok compiled | To this matiere an old histoire, | The which comth nou to mi memoire". In Middle English, the meaning of history was "story" in general. The restriction to the meaning "the branch of knowledge that deals with past events; the formal record or study of past events, esp. human affairs" arose in the mid-15th century.[22] With the Renaissance, older senses of the word were revived, and it was in the Greek sense that Francis Bacon used the term in the late 16th century, when he wrote about natural history. For him, historia was "the knowledge of objects determined by space and time", that sort of knowledge provided by memory (while science was provided by reason, and poetry was provided by fantasy).[23]

In an expression of the linguistic synthetic vs. analytic/isolating dichotomy, English like Chinese (史 vs. 诌) now designates separate words for human history and storytelling in general. In modern German, French, and most Germanic and Romance languages, which are solidly synthetic and highly inflected, the same word is still used to mean both "history" and "story". Historian in the sense of a "researcher of history" is attested from 1531. In all European languages, the substantive history is still used to mean both "what happened with men" and "the scholarly study of the happened" or the word historiography.[21] The adjective historical is attested from 1661, and historic from 1669.[24]

Description

The title page to The Historians' History of the World

Historians write in the context of their own time, and with due regard to the current dominant ideas of how to interpret the past, and sometimes write to provide lessons for their own society. In the words of Benedetto Croce, "All history is contemporary history". History is facilitated by the formation of a "true discourse of past" through the production of narrative and analysis of past events relating to the human race.[25] The modern discipline of history is dedicated to the institutional production of this discourse.

All events that are remembered and preserved in some authentic form constitute the historical record.[26] The task of historical discourse is to identify the sources which can most usefully contribute to the production of accurate accounts of past. Therefore, the constitution of the historian's archive is a result of circumscribing a more general archive by invalidating the usage of certain texts and documents (by falsifying their claims to represent the "true past"). Part of the historian's role is to skillfully and objectively use the many sources from the past, most often found in the archives. The process of creating a narrative inevitably generates debate, as historians remember or emphasize different events of the past.[27]

The study of history has sometimes been classified as part of the humanities, other times part of the social sciences.[28] It can be seen as a bridge between those two broad areas, incorporating methodologies from both. Some historians strongly support one or the other classification.[29] In the 20th century the Annales school revolutionized the study of history, by using such outside disciplines as economics, sociology, and geography in the study of global history.[30]

Traditionally, historians have recorded events of the past, either in writing or by passing on an oral tradition, and attempted to answer historical questions through the study of written documents and oral accounts. From the beginning, historians have used such sources as monuments, inscriptions, and pictures. In general, the sources of historical knowledge can be separated into three categories: what is written, what is said, and what is physically preserved, and historians often consult all three.[31] But writing is the marker that separates history from what comes before.

Archaeology is especially helpful in unearthing buried sites and objects, which contribute to the study of history. Archeological finds rarely stand alone, with narrative sources complementing its discoveries. Archeology's methodologies and approaches are independent from the field of history. "Historical archaeology" is a specific branch of archeology which often contrasts its conclusions against those of contemporary textual sources. For example, Mark Leone, the excavator and interpreter of historical Annapolis, Maryland, US, has sought to understand the contradiction between textual documents idealizing "liberty" and the material record, demonstrating the possession of slaves and the inequalities of wealth made apparent by the study of the total historical environment.

There are varieties of ways in which history can be organized, including chronologically, culturally, territorially, and thematically. These divisions are not mutually exclusive, and significant intersections are present. It is possible for historians to concern themselves with both the very specific and the very general, though the trend has been toward specialization. The area called Big History resists this specialization, and searches for universal patterns or trends. History has often been studied with some practical or theoretical aim, but may be studied out of simple intellectual curiosity.[32]

Prehistory

Further information: Protohistory

Human history is the memory of the past experience of Homo sapiens around the world, as that experience has been preserved, largely in written records. By "prehistory", historians mean the recovery of knowledge of the past in an area where no written records exist, or where the writing of a culture is not understood. By studying painting, drawings, carvings, and other artifacts, some information can be recovered even in the absence of a written record. Since the 20th century, the study of prehistory is considered essential to avoid history's implicit exclusion of certain civilizations, such as those of sub-Saharan Africa and pre-Columbian America. Historians in the West have been criticized for focusing disproportionately on the Western world.[33] In 1961, British historian E. H. Carr wrote:

The line of demarcation between prehistoric and historical times is crossed when people cease to live only in the present, and become consciously interested both in their past and in their future. History begins with the handing down of tradition; and tradition means the carrying of the habits and lessons of the past into the future. Records of the past begin to be kept for the benefit of future generations.[34]

This definition includes within the scope of history the interest in the past held by such peoples as Aboriginal Australians and New Zealand Māori, and the oral records they maintained and transmitted to succeeding generations, even before their contact with Europeans.

Historiography

Main article: Historiography
The title page to La Historia d'Italia

Historiography has a number of related meanings.[35] Firstly, it can refer to how history has been produced: the story of the development of methodology and practices (for example, the move from short-term biographical narrative toward long-term thematic analysis). Secondly, it can refer to what has been produced: a specific body of historical writing (for example, "medieval historiography during the 1960s" means "Works of medieval history written during the 1960s").[35] Thirdly, it may refer to why history is produced: the philosophy of history. As a meta-level analysis of descriptions of the past, this third conception can relate to the first two in that the analysis usually focuses on the narratives, interpretations, world view, use of evidence, or method of presentation of other historians. Historians debate whether history can be taught as a single coherent narrative or a series of competing narratives.[36][37]

Methods

Main article: Historical method

The historical method is a set of techniques historians use to research and interpret the past, covering the processes of collecting, evaluating, and synthesizing evidence.[a] It seeks to ensure scholarly rigor, accuracy, and reliability in how historical evidence is chosen, analyzed, and interpreted.[39] Historical research often starts with a research question to define the scope of the inquiry. Some research questions focus on a simple description of what happened. Others aim to explain why a particular event occurred, refute an existing theory, or confirm a new hypothesis.[40]

Sources and source criticism

To answer research questions, historians rely on various types of evidence to reconstruct the past and support their conclusions. Historical evidence is usually divided into primary and secondary sources.[41] A primary source is a source that originated during the period that is studied. Primary sources can take various forms, such as official documents, letters, diaries, eyewitness accounts, photographs, and audio or video recordings. They also include historical remains examined in archeology, geology, and the medical sciences, such as artifacts and fossils unearthed from excavations. Primary sources offer the most direct evidence of historical events.[42]

A secondary source is a source that analyzes or interprets information found in other sources.[43] Whether a document is a primary or a secondary source depends not only on the document itself but also on the purpose for which it is used. For example, if a historian writes a text about slavery based on an analysis of historical documents, then the text is a secondary source on slavery and a primary source on the historian's opinion.[44][b] Consistency with available sources is one of the main standards of historical works. For instance, the discovery of new sources may lead historians to revise or dismiss previously accepted narratives.[46]

Source criticism is the process of analyzing and evaluating the information a source provides.[c] Typically, this process begins with external criticism, which evaluates the authenticity of a source. It addresses the questions of when and where the source was created and seeks to identify the author, understand their reason for producing the source, and determine if it has undergone some type of modification since its creation. Additionally, the process involves distinguishing between original works, mere copies, and deceptive forgeries.[48]

Internal criticism evaluates the content of a source, typically beginning with the clarification of the meaning within the source. This involves disambiguating individual terms that could be misunderstood but may also require a general translation if the source is written in an ancient language.[d] Once the information content of a source is understood, internal criticism is specifically interested in determining accuracy. Critics ask whether the information is reliable or misrepresents the topic and further question whether the source is comprehensive or omits important details. One way to make these assessments is to evaluate whether the author was able, in principle, to provide a faithful presentation of the studied event and to consider the influences of their intentions and prejudices. Being aware of the inadequacies of a source helps historians decide whether and which aspects of it to trust, and how to use it to construct a narrative.[50]

Synthesis and schools of thought

The selection, analysis, and criticism of sources result in the validation of a large collection of mostly isolated statements about the past. As a next step, sometimes termed historical synthesis, historians examine how the individual pieces of evidence fit together to form part of a larger story.[e] Constructing this broader perspective is crucial for a comprehensive understanding of the topic as a whole. It is a creative aspect[f] of historical writing that reconstructs, interprets, and explains what happened by showing how different events are connected.[53] In this way, historians address not only which events occurred but also why they occurred and what consequences they had.[54] While there are no universally accepted techniques for this synthesis, historians rely on various interpretative tools and approaches in this process.[55]

One tool to provide an accessible overview of complex developments is the use of periodization. It divides a timeframe into different periods, each organized around central themes or developments that shaped the period. For example, the three-age system divides prehistory into Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age based on the predominant materials and technologies during these periods.[56] Another methodological tool is the examination of silences, gaps or omissions in the historical record of events that occurred but did not leave significant evidential traces. Silences can happen when contemporaries find information too obvious to document but may also occur if there were specific reasons to withhold or destroy information.[57][g] Conversely, when large datasets are available, quantitative approaches can be used. For instance, economic and social historians commonly employ statistical analysis to identify patterns and trends associated with large groups.[60]

Different schools of thought often come with their own methodological implications for how to write history.[61] Positivists emphasize the scientific nature of historical inquiry, focusing on empirical evidence to discover objective truths.[62] In contrast, postmodernists reject grand narratives that claim to offer a single, objective truth. Instead, they highlight the subjective nature of historical interpretation, which leads to a multiplicity of divergent perspectives.[63] Marxists interpret historical developments as expressions of economic forces and class struggles.[64] The Annales school highlights long-term social and economic trends while relying on quantitative and interdisciplinary methods.[65] Feminist historians study the role of gender in history, with a particular interest in the experiences of women to challenge patriarchal perspectives.[66]

Areas of study

Particular studies and fields

These are approaches to history; not listed are histories of other fields, such as history of science, history of mathematics, and history of philosophy.

  • Ancient history: the study of history from the beginning of human history until the Early Middle Ages.
  • Atlantic history: the study of the history of people living on or near the Atlantic Ocean.
  • Art history: the study of changes in and the social context of art.
  • Comparative history: the historical analysis of social and cultural entities not confined to national boundaries.
  • Contemporary history: the study of recent historical events.
  • Counterfactual history: the study of historical events as they might have happened in different causal circumstances.
  • Cultural history: the study of culture in the past.
  • Digital history: the use of computing technologies to do massive searches in published sources.
  • Economic history: the use of economic models fitted to the past.
  • Intellectual history: the study of ideas in the context of the cultures that produced them and their development over time.
  • Maritime history: the study of maritime transport and all connected subjects.
  • Material history: the study of objects and the stories they can tell.
  • Modern history: the study of modern times, the era after the Middle Ages.
  • Military history: the study of warfare, historical wars, and Naval history, which is sometimes considered to be a sub-branch of military history.
  • Oral history: the collection and study of historical information by utilizing spoken interviews with people who have lived past events.
  • Palaeography: the study of ancient texts.
  • People's history: historical work from the perspective of common people.
  • Political history: the study of politics in the past.
  • Psychohistory: the study of the psychological motivations for historical events.
  • Pseudohistory: studies about the past that fall outside the domain of mainstream history (sometimes equivalent to pseudoscience).
  • Social history: the study of the process of social change throughout history.
  • Women's history: the history of female human beings. Gender history is related and covers the perspective of gender.
  • World history: the study of history from a global perspective, with special attention to non-Western societies.

Periods

Main article: Periodization

Historical study often focuses on events and developments that occur in particular blocks of time. Historians give these periods of time names in order to allow "organising ideas and classificatory generalisations" to be used by historians.[67] The names given to a period can vary with geographical location, as can the dates of the beginning and end of a particular period. Centuries and decades are commonly used periods and the time they represent depends on the dating system used. Most periods are constructed retrospectively and so reflect value judgments made about the past. The way periods are constructed and the names given to them can affect the way they are viewed and studied.[68]

Prehistoric periodization

The field of history generally leaves prehistory to archeologists, who have entirely different sets of tools and theories. In archeology, the usual method for periodization of the distant prehistoric past is to rely on changes in material culture and technology, such as the Stone Age, Bronze Age, and Iron Age, with subdivisions that are also based on different styles of material remains. Here prehistory is divided into a series of "chapters" so that periods in history could unfold not only in a relative chronology but also narrative chronology.[69] This narrative content could be in the form of functional-economic interpretation. There are periodizations, however, that do not have this narrative aspect, relying largely on relative chronology, and that are thus devoid of any specific meaning.

Despite the development over recent decades of the ability through radiocarbon dating and other scientific methods to give actual dates for many sites or artefacts, these long-established schemes seem likely to remain in use. In many cases neighboring cultures with writing have left some history of cultures without it, which may be used. Periodization, however, is not viewed as a perfect framework, with one account explaining that "cultural changes do not conveniently start and stop (combinedly) at periodization boundaries" and that different trajectories of change need to be studied in their own right before they get intertwined with cultural phenomena.[70]

Geographical locations

Particular geographical locations can form the basis of historical study, for example, continents, countries, and cities. Understanding why historic events took place is important. To do this, historians often turn to the methods and theory from the discipline of geography.[71] According to Jules Michelet in his book Histoire de France (1833), "without geographical basis, the people, the makers of history, seem to be walking on air".[72] Weather patterns, the water supply, and the landscape of a place all affect the lives of the people who live there. For example, to explain why the ancient Egyptians developed a successful civilization, studying the geography of Egypt is essential. Egyptian civilization was built on the banks of the Nile River, which flooded each year, depositing soil on its banks. The rich soil could help farmers grow enough crops to feed the people in the cities. That meant everyone did not have to farm, so some people could perform other jobs that helped develop the civilization. There is also the case of climate, which historians like Ellsworth Huntington and Ellen Churchill Semple cited as a crucial influence on the course of history. Huntington and Semple further argued that climate has an impact on racial temperament.[73]

Regions

Allegory of the recognition of the Empire of Brazil and its independence. The painting depicts British diplomat Sir Charles Stuart presenting his letter of credence to Emperor Pedro I of Brazil, who is flanked by his wife Maria Leopoldina, their daughter Maria da Glória (later Queen Maria II of Portugal), and other dignitaries. At right, a winged figure, representing History, carving the "great event" on a stone tablet.[74]
  • History of Africa begins with the first emergence of modern human beings on the continent, continuing into its modern present as a patchwork of diverse and politically developing states.
  • History of the Americas is the collective history of North and South America, including the Caribbean and Central America.
    • History of North America is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation on the continent in the Earth's Northern and Western Hemispheres.
    • History of the Caribbean begins with the oldest evidence where 7,000-year-old remains have been found.
    • History of Central America is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation on the continent in the Earth's Western Hemisphere.
    • History of South America is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation on the continent in the Earth's Southern and Western Hemispheres.
  • History of Eurasia is the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions: the Middle East, South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe, linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian Steppe of Central Asia and Eastern Europe.
    • History of Europe describes the passage of time from humans inhabiting the European continent to the present day.
    • History of Asia can be seen as the collective history of several distinct peripheral coastal regions, East Asia, South Asia, and the Middle East, linked by the interior mass of the Eurasian Steppe.
      • History of East Asia is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation in East Asia.
      • History of India is the study of the past passed down from generation to generation in the sub-Himalayan region.
      • History of the Middle East begins with the earliest civilizations in the region now known as the Middle East that were established around 3000 BC, in Mesopotamia (Iraq).
      • History of Southeast Asia has been characterized as interaction between regional players and foreign powers.
  • History of Oceania is the collective history of Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands.
    • History of Australia starts with the documentation of the Makassar trading with Indigenous Australians on Australia's north coast.
    • History of New Zealand dates back at least 700 years to when it was discovered and settled by Polynesians, who developed a distinct Māori culture centered on kinship links and land.
    • History of the Pacific Islands covers the history of the islands in the Pacific Ocean.
  • History of Antarctica emerges from early Western theories of a vast continent known as Terra Australis, believed to exist in the far south of the globe.

Political

Main articles: Political history and Political history in the United States

Political history covers the type of government, the branches of government, leaders, legislation, political activism, political parties, and voting.

Military

Main article: Military history

Military history concerns warfare, strategies, battles, weapons, and the psychology of combat.[75] The "new military history" since the 1970s has been concerned with soldiers more than generals, with psychology more than tactics, and with the broader impact of warfare on society and culture.[76]

Religious

Main article: History of religion

The history of religion has been a main theme for both secular and religious historians for centuries, and continues to be taught in seminaries and academe. Leading journals include Church History, The Catholic Historical Review, and History of Religions. Topics range widely from political and cultural and artistic dimensions, to theology and liturgy.[77] This subject studies religions from all regions and areas of the world where humans have lived.[78]

Social

Main article: Social history

Social history, sometimes called the new social history, is the field that includes history of ordinary people and their strategies and institutions for coping with life.[79] In its "golden age" it was a major growth field in the 1960s and 1970s among scholars, and still is well represented in history departments. In two decades from 1975 to 1995, the proportion of professors of history in American universities identifying with social history rose from 31% to 41%, while the proportion of political historians fell from 40% to 30%.[80] In the history departments of British universities in 2007, of the 5723 faculty members, 1644 (29%) identified themselves with social history while political history came next with 1425 (25%).[81] The "old" social history before the 1960s was a hodgepodge of topics without a central theme, and it often included political movements, like Populism, that were "social" in the sense of being outside the elite system. Social history was contrasted with political history, intellectual history and the history of great men. English historian G. M. Trevelyan saw it as the bridging point between economic and political history, reflecting that, "Without social history, economic history is barren and political history unintelligible."[82] While the field has often been viewed negatively as history with the politics left out, it has also been defended as "history with the people put back in".[83]

Subfields

The chief subfields of social history include:

Cultural

Main article: Cultural history

Cultural history replaced social history as the dominant form in the 1980s and 1990s. It typically combines the approaches of anthropology and history to look at language, popular cultural traditions and cultural interpretations of historical experience. It examines the records and narrative descriptions of past knowledge, customs, and arts of a group of people. How peoples constructed their memory of the past is a major topic. Cultural history includes the study of art in society as well is the study of images and human visual production (iconography).[84]

Diplomatic

Main article: Diplomatic history

Diplomatic history focuses on the relationships between nations, primarily regarding diplomacy and the causes of wars.[85] More recently it looks at the causes of peace and human rights. It typically presents the viewpoints of the foreign office, and long-term strategic values, as the driving force of continuity and change in history. This type of political history is the study of the conduct of international relations between states or across state boundaries over time. Historian Muriel Chamberlain notes that after the First World War, "diplomatic history replaced constitutional history as the flagship of historical investigation, at once the most important, most exact and most sophisticated of historical studies".[86] She adds that after 1945, the trend reversed, allowing social history to replace it.

Economic

Main articles: Economic history and Business history

Although economic history has been well established since the late 19th century, in recent years academic studies have shifted more and more toward economics departments and away from traditional history departments.[87] Business history deals with the history of individual business organizations, business methods, government regulation, labour relations, and impact on society. It also includes biographies of individual companies, executives, and entrepreneurs. It is related to economic history. Business history is most often taught in business schools.[88]

Environmental

Main article: Environmental history

Environmental history is a new field that emerged in the 1980s to look at the history of the environment, especially in the long run, and the impact of human activities upon it.[89] It is an offshoot of the environmental movement, which was kickstarted by Rachel Carson's Silent Spring in the 1960s.

World

Main article: World history (field)
See also: Human history and Universal history (genre)

World history is the study of major civilizations over the last 3,000 years or so. World history is primarily a teaching field, rather than a research field. It gained popularity in the United States,[90] Japan[91] and other countries after the 1980s with the realization that students need a broader exposure to the world as globalization proceeds. It has led to highly controversial interpretations by Oswald Spengler and Arnold J. Toynbee, among others.

The World History Association publishes the Journal of World History every quarter since 1990.[92] The H-World discussion list serves as a network of communication among practitioners of world history, with discussions among scholars, announcements, syllabi, bibliographies and book reviews.[93]

People's

Main article: People's history

A people's history is a type of historical work which attempts to account for historical events from the perspective of common people. A people's history is the history of the world that is the story of mass movements and of the outsiders. Individuals or groups not included in the past in other types of writing about history are the primary focus, which includes the disenfranchised, the oppressed, the poor, the nonconformists, and the otherwise forgotten people. The authors are typically on the left and have a socialist model in mind, as in the approach of the History Workshop movement in Britain in the 1960s.[94]

Intellectual

Main article: Intellectual history

Intellectual history and the history of ideas emerged in the mid-20th century, with the focus on the intellectuals and their books on the one hand, and on the other the study of ideas as disembodied objects with a career of their own.[95][96]

Gender

Main articles: Gender history and LGBT history

Gender history is a subfield of History and Gender studies, which looks at the past from the perspective of gender. The outgrowth of gender history from women's history stemmed from many non-feminist historians dismissing the importance of women in history. According to Joan W. Scott, "Gender is a constitutive element of social relationships based on perceived differences between the sexes, and gender is a primary way of signifying relations of power",[97] meaning that gender historians study the social effects of perceived differences between the sexes and how all genders use allotted power in societal and political structures. Despite being a relatively new field, gender history has had a significant effect on the general study of history. Gender history traditionally differs from women's history in its inclusion of all aspects of gender such as masculinity and femininity, and today's gender history extends to include people who identify outside of that binary. LGBT history deals with the first recorded instances of same-sex love and sexuality of ancient civilizations, and involves the history of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender (LGBT) peoples and cultures around the world.[98]

Public

Main article: Public history

Public history describes the broad range of activities undertaken by people with some training in the discipline of history who are generally working outside of specialized academic settings. Public history practice has quite deep roots in the areas of historic preservation, archival science, oral history, museum curatorship, and other related fields. The term itself began to be used in the United States and Canada in the late 1970s, and the field has become increasingly professionalized since that time. Some of the most common settings for public history are museums, historic homes and historic sites, parks, battlefields, archives, film and television companies, and all levels of government.[99]

Historians

For a more comprehensive list, see List of historians.
Benedetto Croce, an Italian philosopher.
Ban Zhao, courtesy name Huiban, was the first known female Chinese historian.
Ban Zhao, courtesy name Huiban, was the first known female Chinese historian.

Professional and amateur historians discover, collect, organize, and present information about past events. They discover this information through archeological evidence, written primary sources, verbal stories or oral histories, and other archival material. In lists of historians, historians can be grouped by order of the historical period in which they were writing, which is not necessarily the same as the period in which they specialized. Chroniclers and annalists, though they are not historians in the true sense, are also frequently included.

Judgement

See also: Ash heap of history

Since the 20th century, Western historians have disavowed the aspiration to provide the "judgement of history".[100] The goals of historical judgements or interpretations are separate to those of legal judgements, that need to be formulated quickly after the events and be final.[101] A related issue to that of the judgement of history is that of collective memory.

Pseudohistory

Main article: Pseudohistory

Pseudohistory is a term applied to texts which purport to be historical in nature but which depart from standard historiographical conventions in a way which undermines their conclusions. It is closely related to deceptive historical revisionism. Works which draw controversial conclusions from new, speculative, or disputed historical evidence, particularly in the fields of national, political, military, and religious affairs, are often rejected as pseudohistory.

Teaching

Scholarship vs teaching

A major intellectual battle took place in Britain in the early twentieth century regarding the place of history teaching in the universities. At Oxford and Cambridge, scholarship was downplayed. Professor Charles Harding Firth, Oxford's Regius Professor of history in 1904 ridiculed the system as best suited to produce superficial journalists. The Oxford tutors, who had more votes than the professors, fought back in defense of their system saying that it successfully produced Britain's outstanding statesmen, administrators, prelates, and diplomats, and that mission was as valuable as training scholars. The tutors dominated the debate until after the Second World War. It forced aspiring young scholars to teach at outlying schools, such as Manchester University, where Thomas Frederick Tout was professionalizing the History undergraduate programme by introducing the study of original sources and requiring the writing of a thesis.[102][103]

In the United States, scholarship was concentrated at the major PhD-producing universities, while the large number of other colleges and universities focused on undergraduate teaching. A tendency in the 21st century was for the latter schools to increasingly demand scholarly productivity of their younger tenure-track faculty. Furthermore, universities have increasingly relied on inexpensive part-time adjuncts to do most of the classroom teaching.[104]

Nationalism

From the origins of national school systems in the 19th century, the teaching of history to promote national sentiment has been a high priority. In the United States after World War I, a strong movement emerged at the university level to teach courses in Western Civilization, so as to give students a common heritage with Europe. In the US after 1980, attention increasingly moved toward teaching world history or requiring students to take courses in non-western cultures, to prepare students for life in a globalized economy.[105]

The teaching of history in French schools was influenced by the Nouvelle histoire as disseminated after the 1960s by Cahiers pédagogiques and Enseignement and other journals for teachers. Also influential was the Institut national de recherche et de documentation pédagogique (INRDP). Joseph Leif, the Inspector-general of teacher training, said pupils children should learn about historians' approaches as well as facts and dates. Louis François, Dean of the History/Geography group in the Inspectorate of National Education advised that teachers should provide historic documents and promote "active methods" which would give pupils "the immense happiness of discovery". Proponents said it was a reaction against the memorization of names and dates that characterized teaching and left the students bored. Traditionalists protested loudly it was a postmodern innovation that threatened to leave the youth ignorant of French patriotism and national identity.[106]

Bias in school teaching

History books in a bookstore

In several countries, history textbooks are tools to foster nationalism and patriotism, and give students the official narrative about national enemies.[107] In many countries, history textbooks are sponsored by the national government and are written to put the national heritage in the most favorable light. For example, in Japan, mention of the Nanking Massacre has been removed from textbooks and the entire Second World War is given cursory treatment. Other countries have complained about this.[108] Another example includes Turkey, where there is no mention of the Armenian Genocide in Turkish textbooks as a result of the denial of the genocide.[109] Academic historians have often fought against the politicization of the textbooks, sometimes with success.[110][111]

It was standard policy in communist countries to present only a rigid Marxist historiography.[112][113] In the United States, textbooks published by the same company often differ in content from state to state.[114] An example of content that is represented different in different regions of the country is the history of the Southern states, where slavery and the American Civil War are treated as controversial topics. McGraw-Hill Education for example, was criticized for describing Africans brought to American plantations as "workers" instead of slaves in a textbook.[115] In 21st-century Germany, the history curriculum is controlled by the 16 states, and is characterized not by superpatriotism but rather by an "almost pacifistic and deliberately unpatriotic undertone" and reflects "principles formulated by international organizations such as UNESCO or the Council of Europe, thus oriented towards human rights, democracy and peace." The result is that "German textbooks usually downplay national pride and ambitions and aim to develop an understanding of citizenship centered on democracy, progress, human rights, peace, tolerance and Europeanness."[116]

See also

References

Notes

  1. ^ Understood in a narrow sense, the historical method is sometimes limited to the evaluation or criticism of sources.[38]
  2. ^ The exact definitions of primary source and secondary source are disputed and there is not always consensus on how a particular source should be categorized. For example, if a person was not present at a riot but reports on it shortly after it happened, some historians consider this report a primary source while others see it as a secondary source.[45]
  3. ^ Leopold von Ranke's (1795–1886) emphasis on source evaluation significantly influenced the practice of historical research.[47]
  4. ^ Historians consider the context and time of the document to understand the meanings of the terms it uses. For example, the word awful originally had a positive connotation, meaning 'worthy of awe', which contrasts with its modern meaning 'bad or terrible'.[49]
  5. ^ This becomes particularly challenging if different sources provide seemingly contradictory information.[51]
  6. ^ The creativity and imagination needed for this step is one of the reasons why some theorists understand history as an art rather than a science.[52]
  7. ^ For example, Martha Washington burned all private letters between her and her husband George Washington, leaving decades worth of silences on their relationship.[58] Another cause of silences, the existence of a taboo, such as a taboo against homosexuality, can have the effect that little information on the topic is recorded.[59]

Citations

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  4. ^ a b Professor Richard J. Evans (2001). "The Two Faces of E.H. Carr". History in Focus, Issue 2: What is History?. University of London. Archived from the original on 9 August 2011. Retrieved 10 November 2008.
  5. ^ Professor Alun Munslow (2001). "What History Is". History in Focus, Issue 2: What is History?. University of London. Archived from the original on 9 August 2011. Retrieved 10 November 2008.
  6. ^ Tosh, John (2006). The Pursuit of History (4th ed.). Pearson Education Limited. p. 52. ISBN 978-1405823517.
  7. ^ Stearns, Peter N.; Seixas, Peter Carr; Wineburg, Samuel S. (2000). Knowing, teaching, and learning history : national and international perspectives. Internet Archive. New York University Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0814781418.
  8. ^ Nash l, Gary B. (2000). "The "Convergence" Paradigm in Studying Early American History in Schools". In Peter N. Stearns; Peters Seixas; Sam Wineburg (eds.). Knowing Teaching and Learning History, National and International Perspectives. New York & London: New York University Press. pp. 102–115. ISBN 0814781411.
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Sources

Further reading

  • Norton, Mary Beth; Gerardi, Pamela, eds. (1995). The American Historical Association's Guide to Historical Literature (3rd ed.). Oxford U.P; Annotated guide to 27,000 of the most important English language history books in all fields and topics.
  • Benjamin, Jules R. (2009). A Student's Guide to History.
  • Carr, E.H. (2001). What is History?. With a new introduction by Richard J. Evans. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0333977017.
  • Cronon, William (2013). "Storytelling". American Historical Review. 118 (1): 1–19. doi:10.1093/ahr/118.1.1. Archived from the original on 23 July 2016. Retrieved 24 July 2016; Discussion of the impact of the end of the Cold War upon scholarly research funding, the impact of the Internet and Wikipedia on history study and teaching, and the importance of storytelling in history writing and teaching.
  • Evans, Richard J. (2000). In Defence of History. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 0393319598.
  • Furay, Conal; Salevouris, Michael J. (2010). The Methods and Skills of History: A Practical Guide.
  • Kelleher, William (2008). Writing History: A Guide for Students; excerpt and text search.
  • Lingelbach, Gabriele (2011). "The Institutionalization and Professionalization of History in Europe and the United States". The Oxford History of Historical Writing. Vol. 4: 1800–1945. Oxford University Press. pp. 78–. ISBN 978-0199533091. Archived from the original on 15 September 2015. Retrieved 2 July 2015.
  • Presnell, Jenny L. (2006). The Information-Literate Historian: A Guide to Research for History Students; excerpt and text search.
  • Tosh, John (2006). The Pursuit of History. Pearson Longman. ISBN 1405823518.
  • Woolf, D.R. (1998). A Global Encyclopedia of Historical Writing. Vol. 2. Garland Reference Library of the Humanities; excerpt and text search.
  • Williams, H.S., ed. (1907). The Historians' History of the World. Vol. Book 1. Archived from the original on 15 September 2015. Retrieved 2 July 2015; This is Book 1 of 25 Volumes.
  • Schwarcz, Lilia Moritz (1998). As barbas do imperador: D. Pedro II, um monarca nos trópicos (in Portuguese). São Paulo: Companhia das Letras. ISBN 85-7164-837-9.
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