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Glossina morsitans

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Glossina morsitans
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Glossinidae
Genus: Glossina
Species:
G. morsitans
Binomial name
Glossina morsitans
Westwood, 1851

Glossina morsitans is a species of tsetse fly (genus Glossina). It is one of the major vectors of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense[1] in African savannas.[2]

Taxonomy

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Glossina morsitans is variously classified into the subgenus Glossina s.s.[2] or as the name species of the morsitans species group. Three subspecies are traditionally recognized for G. morsitans:[1][2][3]

  1. G. m. submorsitans
  2. G. m. morsitans
  3. G. m. centralis

G.m.s. is further subdivided by some authors into a G. m. s. ugandensis.[4]

Morphology

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Egg

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About 1.5–1.6 millimetres (15⁄256–1⁄16 in) long.[5][6]

Pregnant female
Pregnant female

Larvae

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First instar

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1.8 millimetres (5⁄64 in) long.[5]

Second instar

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4.5 millimetres (11⁄64 in) long.[5]

Third instar

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6–7 millimetres (15⁄64–9⁄32 in) long.[5]

Adult

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Adults are 7.75 millimetres (5⁄16 in). G. morsitans is occasionally distinguishable from congeners by the unaided eye - there are differences in gross coloration - if it can be observed resting. It is more readily distinguishable by microscopic examination.[7]

Metabolism

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Flight muscles are primarily powered by proline, which is synthesized from fatty acids mobilised out of the fat body. Proline is so efficiently used in muscle mitochondria because they are specialised towards proline oxidising enzymes, and away from enzymes using fatty acids and pyruvate.[8]

Distribution

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G. morsitans is found in East Africa and Equatorial Africa.[1][9]

It is the tsetse species that is presently reported from the highest number of African countries[10], i.e. at least 22 including: Angola, Burkina Faso,[11] Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Ethiopia,[12] Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Malawi, Mali,[13] Mozambique, Nigeria,[14] Rwanda, Senegal, Sudan,[15] Tanzania, Togo, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe.[16]

The species was also historically reported in Benin, Burundi, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Niger, Sierra Leone and South Sudan, although recent published data for the species in these countries is lacking[10]. G. morsitans  was also present in Botswana[17] and Namibia, but the species is believed to have been sustainably eliminated in these two countries by means of aerial spraying of insecticide.[10][17]

Hosts

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G. morsitans feeds upon warthogs, oxen, buffaloes, kudus, and humans.[18] About 6% of G. m. s.'s bloodmeals come from birds (excluding ostriches).[19]

Genome

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A sequence was made available in 2014. Among other results this reveals that G. morsitans's genome has incorporated some of its Wolbachia symbiont's genome (see also § Symbionts below).[20] The sense of taste of G. m. m. lacks the sense of sweetness - which may be due to its exclusively hematophagous diet.[21]

Genetics

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G. morsitans carries 3 Ago2‍s according to data compiled by Mongelli & Saleh 2016[22][23] and Dowling et al 2016 finds 2 Ago3‍s[23] while Mongelli & Saleh's compilation shows 3.[22][23]

Symbionts

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G. m. m. is in obligate symbiosis with Wigglesworthia glossinidia and Wolbachia. Without Wigglesworthia, G. m. m. is sterile, and without Wolbachia they are reproductively incompatible with normal flies.[24]

Economic impact

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Trypanosomiasis transmitted by G. morsitans and other tsetse species is one of the largest economic problems Africa faces. It has radically altered the cattle agroeconomy across the middle of Africa, severely shrinking the cattle pastoral lifestyle by shrinking the extent of safe grazing lands. This has left about 10,400,000 square kilometres (4,000,000 sq mi) of otherwise usable land devoid of cattle. Raising cattle in the manner common in 1963, this would have allowed for another 125,000,000 head - more than doubling the 114,000,000 being raised at the time.[25]

References

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  1. ^ a b c Pollock, J. N., ed. (1982). Training Manual for Tsetse Control Personnel: Tsetse biology, systematics and distribution; techniques. Rome: FAO.
  2. ^ a b c Rozendaal, Jan A. (1996). "2. Tsetse flies". Vector Control : Methods for Use by Individuals and Communities. Albany: World Health Organization. pp. 178–192. ISBN 92-4-154494-5. OCLC 927460540.
  3. ^ Gooding, R.H.; Krafsur, Elliot Scoville (2005). "Tsetse Genetics: Contributions to Biology, Systematics, and Control of Tsetse Flies". Annual Review of Entomology. 50 (1). Annual Reviews: 101–123. doi:10.1146/annurev.ento.50.071803.130443. ISSN 0066-4170. PMC 1462949. PMID 15355235.
  4. ^ Krafsur, Elliot Scoville (2009). "Tsetse flies: Genetics, evolution, and role as vectors". Infection, Genetics and Evolution. 9 (1). Elsevier: 124–141. Bibcode:2009InfGE...9..124K. doi:10.1016/j.meegid.2008.09.010. ISSN 1567-1348. PMC 2652644. PMID 18992846.
  5. ^ a b c d "Tsetse biology, systematics and distribution, techniques". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Archived from the original on 2021-10-02. Retrieved 2021-02-20.
  6. ^ "Tsetse biology, systematics and distribution, techniques". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Archived from the original on 2021-10-02. Retrieved 2021-02-20.
  7. ^ "Tsetse biology, systematics and distribution, techniques". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Archived from the original on 2021-10-02. Retrieved 2021-02-20.
  8. ^ Arrese, Estela L.; Soulages, Jose L. (2010). "Insect Fat Body: Energy, Metabolism, and Regulation". Annual Review of Entomology. 55 (1). Annual Reviews: 207–225. doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-112408-085356. ISSN 0066-4170. PMC 3075550. PMID 19725772.
  9. ^ "Glossina morsitans morsitans". Invasive Species Compendium (ISC). CABI (Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International. 2019-11-21. Retrieved 2021-02-20.
  10. ^ a b c Cecchi, G.; Paone, M.; de Gier, J.; Zhao, W. (2024). The continental atlas of the distribution of tsetse flies in Africa. FAO. doi:10.4060/cd2022en. ISBN 978-92-5-139040-5.
  11. ^ Percoma, Lassane; Rayaissé, Jean Baptiste; Gimonneau, Geoffrey; Bengaly, Zakaria; Pooda, Sié Hermann; Pagabeleguem, Soumaïla; Ganaba, Rasmané; Sow, Adama; Argilés, Rafael; Bouyer, Jérémy; Ouedraogo, Moussa; Zhao, Weining; Paone, Massimo; Sidibé, Issa; Gisele, Ouedraogo/Sanon (2022-03-04). "An atlas to support the progressive control of tsetse-transmitted animal trypanosomosis in Burkina Faso". Parasites & Vectors. 15 (1): 72. doi:10.1186/s13071-021-05131-4. ISSN 1756-3305. PMC 8895521. PMID 35246216.
  12. ^ Gebre, Tsegaye; Kapitano, Berisha; Beyene, Dagnachew; Alemu, Dereje; Beshir, Ahimedin; Worku, Zelalem; Kifle, Teshome; Selamu, Ayana; Debas, Endalew; Kalsa, Aschenaki; Asfaw, Netsanet; Zhao, Weining; Paone, Massimo; Cecchi, Giuliano (2022-12-28). "The national atlas of tsetse flies and African animal trypanosomosis in Ethiopia". Parasites & Vectors. 15 (1): 491. doi:10.1186/s13071-022-05617-9. ISSN 1756-3305. PMC 9798648. PMID 36578020.
  13. ^ Diarra, Boucader; Diarra, Modibo; Diall, Oumar; Bass, Boubacar; Sanogo, Youssouf; Coulibaly, Etienne; Sylla, Mahamadou; Zhao, Weining; Paone, Massimo; Cecchi, Giuliano (2019-10-09). "A national atlas of tsetse and African animal trypanosomosis in Mali". Parasites & Vectors. 12 (1): 466. doi:10.1186/s13071-019-3721-3. ISSN 1756-3305. PMC 6784336. PMID 31597558.
  14. ^ de Gier, Jill; Cecchi, Giuliano; Paone, Massimo; Dede, Peter; Zhao, Weining (2020-04-01). "The continental atlas of tsetse and African animal trypanosomosis in Nigeria". Acta Tropica. 204: 105328. doi:10.1016/j.actatropica.2020.105328. ISSN 0001-706X. PMID 31904345.
  15. ^ Ahmed, Selma K.; Rahman, Ahmed H.; Hassan, Mohammed A.; Salih, Sir Elkhatim M.; Paone, Massimo; Cecchi, Giuliano (2016-04-07). "An atlas of tsetse and bovine trypanosomosis in Sudan". Parasites & Vectors. 9 (1): 194. doi:10.1186/s13071-016-1485-6. ISSN 1756-3305. PMC 4825090. PMID 27056678.
  16. ^ Shereni, William; Neves, Luis; Argilés, Rafael; Nyakupinda, Learnmore; Cecchi, Giuliano (2021-01-14). "An atlas of tsetse and animal African trypanosomiasis in Zimbabwe". Parasites & Vectors. 14 (1): 50. doi:10.1186/s13071-020-04555-8. ISSN 1756-3305. PMC 7807824. PMID 33446276.
  17. ^ a b Kgori, P. M.; Modo, S.; Torr, S. J. (2006-10-01). "The use of aerial spraying to eliminate tsetse from the Okavango Delta of Botswana". Acta Tropica. 99 (2): 184–199. doi:10.1016/j.actatropica.2006.07.007. ISSN 0001-706X. PMID 16987491.
  18. ^ "Tsetse biology, systematics and distribution, techniques". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Archived from the original on 2021-10-01. Retrieved 2021-02-20.
  19. ^ "Tsetse biology, systematics and distribution, techniques". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Archived from the original on 2021-11-30. Retrieved 2021-02-20.
  20. ^ Attardo, G. M.; Abila, P. P.; Auma, J. E.; Baumann, A. A.; Benoit, J. B.; Brelsfoard, C. L.; Ribeiro, J. M. C.; Cotton, J. A.; Pham, D. Q. D.; Darby, A. C.; Van Den Abbeele, J.; Denlinger, D. L.; Field, L. M.; Nyanjom, S. R. G.; Gaunt, M. W.; Geiser, D. L.; Gomulski, L. M.; Haines, L. R.; Hansen, I. A.; Jones, J. W.; Kibet, C. K.; Kinyua, J. K.; Larkin, D. M.; Lehane, M. J.; Rio, R. V. M.; Macdonald, S. J.; Macharia, R. W.; Malacrida, A. R.; Marco, H. G.; Marucha, K. K.; Masiga, D. K.; Meuti, M. E.; Mireji, P. O.; Obiero, G. F. O.; Koekemoer, J. J. O.; Okoro, C. K.; Omedo, I. A.; Osamor, V. C.; Balyeidhusa, A. S. P.; Peyton, J. T.; Price, D. P.; Quail, M. A.; Ramphul, U. N.; Rawlings, N. D.; Riehle, M. A.; Robertson, H. M.; Sanders, M. J.; Scott, M. J.; Dashti, Z. J. S.; Snyder, A. K.; Srivastava, T. P.; Stanley, E. J.; Swain, M. T.; Hughes, D. S. T.; Tarone, A. M.; Taylor, T. D.; Telleria, E. L.; Thomas, G. H.; Walshe, D. P.; Wilson, R. K.; Winzerling, J. J.; Acosta-Serrano, A.; Aksoy, S.; Arensburger, P.; Aslett, M.; Bateta, R.; Benkahla, A.; Berriman, M.; Bourtzis, K.; Caers, J.; Caljon, G.; Christoffels, A.; Falchetto, M.; Friedrich, M.; Fu, S.; Gade, G.; Githinji, G.; Gregory, R.; Hall, N.; Harkins, G.; Hattori, M.; Hertz-Fowler, C.; Hide, W.; Hu, W.; Imanishi, T.; Inoue, N.; Jonas, M.; Kawahara, Y.; Koffi, M.; Kruger, A.; Lawson, D.; Lehane, S.; Lehvaslaiho, H.; Luiz, T.; Makgamathe, M.; Malele, I.; Manangwa, O.; Manga, L.; Megy, K.; Michalkova, V.; Mpondo, F.; Mramba, F.; Msangi, A.; Mulder, N.; Murilla, G.; Mwangi, S.; Okedi, L.; Ommeh, S.; Ooi, C.-P.; Ouma, J.; Panji, S.; Ravel, S.; Rose, C.; Sakate, R.; Schoofs, L.; Scolari, F.; Sharma, V.; Sim, C.; Siwo, G.; Solano, P.; Stephens, D.; Suzuki, Y.; Sze, S.-H.; Toure, Y.; Toyoda, A.; Tsiamis, G.; Tu, Z.; Wamalwa, M.; Wamwiri, F.; Wang, J.; Warren, W.; Watanabe, J.; Weiss, B.; Willis, J.; Wincker, P.; Zhang, Q.; Zhou, J.-J. (2014-04-24). "Genome Sequence of the Tsetse Fly (Glossina morsitans): Vector of African Trypanosomiasis (NIHMSID: NIHMS591386)". Science. 344 (6182). American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS): 380–386. doi:10.1126/science.1249656. ISSN 0036-8075. PMC 4077534. PMID 24763584. S2CID 206554402.
  21. ^ Obiero, George F. O.; Mireji, Paul O.; Nyanjom, Steven R. G.; Christoffels, Alan; Robertson, Hugh M.; Masiga, Daniel K. (2014-04-24). Ribeiro, José M. C. (ed.). "Odorant and Gustatory Receptors in the Tsetse Fly Glossina morsitans morsitans". PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases. 8 (4). Public Library of Science (PLoS): e2663. doi:10.1371/journal.pntd.0002663. ISSN 1935-2735. PMC 3998910. PMID 24763191. S2CID 23997186.
  22. ^ a b Mongelli, Vanesa; Saleh, Maria-Carla (2016-09-29). "Bugs Are Not to Be Silenced: Small RNA Pathways and Antiviral Responses in Insects" (PDF). Annual Review of Virology. 3 (1). Annual Reviews: 573–589. doi:10.1146/annurev-virology-110615-042447. ISSN 2327-056X. PMID 27741406. S2CID 38499958.
  23. ^ a b c Zhu, Kun Yan; Palli, Subba Reddy (2020-01-07). "Mechanisms, Applications, and Challenges of Insect RNA Interference". Annual Review of Entomology. 65 (1). Annual Reviews: 293–311. doi:10.1146/annurev-ento-011019-025224. ISSN 0066-4170. PMC 9939233. PMID 31610134. S2CID 204702574.
  24. ^ Alam, Uzma; Medlock, Jan; Brelsfoard, Corey; Pais, Roshan; Lohs, Claudia; Balmand, Séverine; Carnogursky, Jozef; Heddi, Abdelaziz; Takac, Peter; Galvani, Alison; Aksoy, Serap (2011-12-08). Schneider, David S. (ed.). "Wolbachia Symbiont Infections Induce Strong Cytoplasmic Incompatibility in the Tsetse Fly Glossina morsitans". PLOS Pathogens. 7 (12). Public Library of Science (PLoS): e1002415. doi:10.1371/journal.ppat.1002415. ISSN 1553-7374. PMC 3234226. PMID 22174680.
  25. ^ Wilson, S. G.; Morris, K. R.; Lewis, I. J.; Krog, E. (1963). "The effects of trypanosomiasis on rural economy with special reference to the Sudan, Bechuanaland and West Africa". Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 28 (5–6). World Health Organization: 595–613. ISSN 0042-9686. PMC 2554950. PMID 14001093.

Further reading

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