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Spurious languages

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Not to be confused with Fictional language.

Spurious languages are languages that have been reported as existing in reputable works, while other research has reported that the language in question did not exist. Some spurious languages have been proven to not exist. Others have very little evidence supporting their existence, and have been dismissed in later scholarship. Others still are of uncertain existence due to limited research.

Below is a sampling of languages that have been claimed to exist in reputable sources but have subsequently been disproved or challenged. In some cases a purported language is tracked down and turns out to be another, known language. This is common when language varieties are named after places or ethnicities.

Some alleged languages turn out to be hoaxes, such as the Kukurá language of Brazil or the Taensa language of Louisiana. Others are honest errors that persist in the literature despite being corrected by the original authors; an example of this is Hongote, the name given in 1892 to two Colonial word lists, one of Tlingit and one of a Salishan language, that were mistakenly listed as Patagonian. The error was corrected three times that year, but nonetheless "Hongote" was still listed as a Patagonian language a century later in Greenberg (1987).[1]: 133 

In the case of New Guinea, one of the most linguistically diverse areas on Earth, some spurious languages are simply the names of language surveys that the data was published under. Examples are Mapi, Kia, Upper Digul, Upper Kaeme, listed as Indo-Pacific languages in Ruhlen 1987; these are actually rivers that gave their names to language surveys in the Greater Awyu languages and Ok languages of New Guinea.[2]

Dubious languages

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Dubious languages are those whose existence is uncertain. They include:

Spurious according to Ethnologue and ISO 639-3

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Following is a list of ISO 639-3 language codes which have been retired since the standard was established in 2006, arranged by the year in which the actual retirement took effect; in most cases the change request for retirement was submitted in the preceding year. Also included is a partial list of languages (with their SIL codes) that appeared at one time in Ethnologue but were removed prior to 2006, arranged by the first edition in which they did not appear.

The list includes codes that have been retired from ISO 639-3 or languages removed from Ethnologue because the language apparently does not exist and cannot be identified with an existing language. The list does not include instances where the "language" turns out to be a spelling variant of another language or the name of a village where an already known language is spoken; these are cases of duplicates, which are resolved in ISO 639-3 by a code merger. It does include "languages" for which there is no evidence or which cannot be found. (In some cases, however, the evidence for nonexistence is a survey among the current population of the area, which would not identify extinct languages such as Ware below.)

SIL codes are upper case; ISO codes are lower case. Once retired, ISO 639-3 codes are not reused.[6] SIL codes that were retired prior to 2006 may have been re-used or may have reappeared as ISO codes for other languages.

Removed from Ethnologue, 12th ed., 1992

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  • Itaem (PNG) [ITM]
  • Marajona (Brazil) [MPQ]
  • Nemeyam (PNG) [NMY]
  • Nereyama, Nereyó (Brazil) [NRY]
  • Numbiaí (Orelha de Pau) [NUH]
  • Oganibi (PNG) [OGA]
  • Tijuana Sign Language (Mexico) [TJS] – added to Ethnologue 1988 by mistake due to a misunderstanding, removed in 1992. No evidence that it ever existed.
  • Tyeliri Senoufo [TYE] – the Tyeliri are a caste of leather workers, and do not have their own language
  • Wagumi [WGM]
  • Zanofil [ZNF] – name of an ethnic group that speaks Yongkom [yon]

Removed from Ethnologue, 13th ed., 1996

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  • Bibasa (PNG) [BHE] – described as "isolate in need of survey" in the 12th ed.

Removed from Ethnologue, 14th ed., 2000

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  • Alak 2 [ALQ] – a mislabeled fragment of a word list[7]
  • Dzorgai [DZI], Kortse [KBG], Pingfang [PFG], Thochu [TCJ], Lofuchai (Lophuchai) [LFU], Wagsod [WGS] – old names for Qiangic languages, some of uncertain correspondence to currently recognized names
  • Hsifan [HSI] – an ethnic name for people speaking a variety of Qiangic or Jiarongic languages
  • Scandinavian Pidgin Sign Language [SPF] – normal inter-language contact, not an established pidgin
  • Wutana (Nigeria) [WUW] – an ethnic name

Removed from Ethnologue, 15th ed., 2005

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  • Jiji [JIJ][8]
  • Kalanke [CKN][9]
  • Lewada-Dewara [LWD], incl. Balamula/Mataru[10]
  • Lowland Semang [ORB][11] (though other languages without ISO codes, such as Wila', are also called Lowland Semang)
  • Mutús [MUF][12] – suspected to exist, e.g. by Adelaar 2005
  • Nchinchege [NCQ][13]
  • Nkwak [NKQ][14] – same as Tanjijili? Also a possible synonym for Kwak (retired in 2015)
  • Oso (Southern Fungom) [OSO] – no evidence it is distinct from Fungom and Bum[15]
  • Rungi [RUR][16]
  • Wamsak [WBD][17]

Retired 2007

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  • Miarrã [xmi] – unattested[18][19]
  • Atuence [atf] – an old town name[20]
  • Amapá Creole [amd][21]

Retired 2008

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  • Amikoana (Amikuân) [akn][22]
  • Land Dayak [dyk] – language family name, not individual language[23]
  • Ware [wre][24] – Ware is listed as extinct in Maho (2009). When an SIL team in Tanzania were not able to find any evidence of it being spoken, the code was retired.
  • Bahau River Kenyah [bwv], Kayan River Kenyah [knh], Mahakam Kenyah [xkm], Upper Baram Kenyah [ubm] – Any current use is likely either Mainstream Kenyah [xkl] or Uma' Lung [ulu]
  • Amerax [aex] – prison jargon
  • Garreh-Ajuran [ggh] (Borana & Somali)
  • Sufrai [suf] – two languages, Tarpia and Kaptiau, which are not close[25]

Retired 2009

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Retired 2010

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  • Chimakum [cmk] – duplicate of Chemakum [xch]
  • Beti (Cameroon) [btb] – a group name

Retired 2011

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  • Ayi (China) [ayx]
  • Dhanwar (India) [dha]
  • Mahei [mja]

Retired 2012

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Retired 2013

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Retired 2014

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  • Gugu Mini [ggm] – a generic name
  • Maskoy Pidgin [mhh] – never existed
  • Emok [emo] – never existed
  • Yugh [yuu] – duplicate of Yug [yug]
  • Lamam [lmm] – duplicate of Romam [rmx]

Retired 2015

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  • Mator-Taygi-Karagas [ymt] – duplicate of Mator
  • Yiddish Sign Language [yds] – no evidence that it existed[28]
  • The [thx] – duplicate of Oy
  • Imraguen (Mauritania) [ime]
  • Borna (Eborna) [bxx] – perhaps a typo for Boma (Eboma)[29]
  • Bemba [bmy] – a tribal name
  • Songa [sgo] – a tribal name
  • Daza [dzd] – retired in 2015 (with the reason "Nonexistent") but that decision was reversed in 2023, bringing [dzd] back[30]
  • Buya [byy]
  • Kakauhua [kbf] – Kakauhua/Caucahue is an ethnonym, language unattested – see Alacalufan languages
  • Subi [xsj] – duplicate of Shubi [suj] but that decision was reversed in 2019, bringing [xsj] back[31]
  • Yangho [ynh] – does not exist
  • ǂKxʼaoǁʼae ("=/Kx'au//'ein") [aue] – dialect of Juǀʼhoan [ktz][32]

Retired 2016

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  • Bhatola [btl]
  • Cagua [cbh]
  • Chipiajes [cbe] – a Saliba and Guahibo surname
  • Coxima [kox]
  • Iapama [iap] – uncontacted, and likely one of the neighboring languages
  • Kabixí [xbx] – generic name for Parecis, Nambiquaras, or any hostile group (see Cabixi language for one specific use)
  • Runa [rna]
  • Savara (Dravidian) [svr]
  • Xipináwa [xip][33]
  • Yarí [yri]

And several supposed extinct Arawakan languages of Venezuela and Colombia:

  • Cumeral [cum]
  • Omejes [ome]
  • Ponares [pod] – a Sáliba surname, perhaps just Piapoco or Achagua[34]
  • Tomedes a.k.a. Tamudes [toe]

Additional languages and codes were retired in 2016, due to a lack of evidence that they existed, but were not necessarily spurious as languages.

Retired 2017

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Retired 2018

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  • Lyons Sign Language [lsg][39] – no substantive evidence that the language ever existed.
  • Mediak [mwx][40]
  • Mosiro [mwy] – a clan name[41]

Retired 2019

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  • Lui [lba][42]
  • Khlor [llo] – duplicate of Kriang [ngt][43]
  • Mina (India) [myi] – Meena, a tribe and caste name in India[44]

Retired 2020

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Retired 2021

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  • Bikaru [bic] – posited based on a poor elicitation of ordinary Bisorio[57]

Retired 2022

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Retired 2023

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Retired 2024

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  • Mawa [wma] – listed in Ethnologue but SIL has no evidence it ever existed.

Spurious according to Glottolog

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Glottolog, maintained at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, classifies several languages, some with ISO 639 codes, as spurious/unattested in addition to those retired by the ISO. These include:

Language Name ISO 639-3 Details
!Khuai Duplicate of ǀXam
Adabe adb Dialect of Wetarese, taken for a Papuan language
Adu adu Duplicate of Okpamheri
Agaria agi all likely candidates in the area already have ISO codes
Ahirani ahr Khandeshi dialect
Anasi bpo Misidentification of Nisa
Arakwal rkw An ethnic group, not a language
Baga Kaloum bqf Should be subsumed into Koga variant
Baga Sobané bsv Should be subsumed into Sitemu variant
Bainouk-Samik bcb Split from Bainouk-Gunyuño due solely to national border
Bhalay bhx A caste rather than a language
Bubia bbx
Buso bso Duplicate of Kwang
Chetco ctc Indistinguishable from Tolowa
Chuanqiandian Cluster Miao cqd
Con cno
Gengle geg Mutually intelligible with Kugama
Gowlan goj A caste rather than a language
Gowli gok A caste, not a language
Guajajara gub Mutually intelligble with Tenetehara
Ihievbe ihi Ibviosakan dialect
Ir irr duplicate of Ong-Ir
Judeo-Berber jbe According to Glottolog, Jewish Berbers speak no differently than Muslim Berbers. However, there are claims, listed in the linked article, that this is not true.
Kang kyp
Kannada Kurumba kfi
Katukína kav Historical form of modern-day language, not considered distinct
Kayort kyv Duplicate of Rajbanshi
Kisankasa kqh
Kofa kso Duplicate of Bata
Kpatili kpm Purportedly the original language of the Kpatili people, who now speak Gbayi, but any such language is unattested
Kuanhua xnh Insufficient attestion; possibly Khmu
Kuku-Mangk xmq
Lama (Myanmar) lay Duplicate of Nung
Lambichhong lmh Yakkha language; name exists due to form errors
Lang'e yne
Laopang lbg Undocumented Loloish language
Loarki lrk Also covered under Gade Lohar (gda)
Lopi lov Undocumented Loloish language
Lumba-Yakkha luu Yakkha language; name exists due to form errors
Munda unx Duplicate of Mundari
Ndonde Hamba njd Dialect of Makonde language
Norra nrr Duplicate of Nung
Northwestern Fars faz all likely candidates in the area already have ISO codes
Odut oda Extinct and unattested Nigerian language
Old Turkish otk
Ontenu ont A place rather than a language
Phangduwali phw Yakkha language; name exists due to form errors
Pisabo pig Asserted to be both unattested and non-distinct by Glottolog
Pokangá pok Spurious misidentification of Waimajã
Potiguára pog Unattested language, Glottolog argues is likely Old Tupi
Puimei Naga npu Indistinct variety of one of the related languages
Putoh put
Quetzaltepec Mixe pxm
Rufiji rui
Skagit ska duplicate of Lushootseed
Snohomish sno duplicate of Lushootseed
Southern Lolopo ysp Confused entry duplicating either Lolopo or Miqie
Southwestern Nisu nsv Likely confused additional Nisu language (spoken in same locations as Southern Nisu)
Syerna Senoufo shz Should be subsumed into Sìcìté Sénoufo
Tawang Monpa twm Chinese and Indian name for Dakpakha
Tetete teb Unattested, but intelligeble with Siona language
Thu Lao tyl Duplicate of Dai Zhuang
Tingui-Boto tgv Ethnic group speaking Dzubukuá
Welaung weu Place name, not a language
Yarsun yrs
Yauma yax

References and notes

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  1. ^ Campbell, Lyle (2012). "Classification of the indigenous languages of South America". In Grondona, Verónica; Campbell, Lyle (eds.). The Indigenous Languages of South America. The World of Linguistics. Vol. 2. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 59–166. ISBN 9783110255133.
  2. ^ Upper Kaeme may correspond to Korowai.
  3. ^ Tapeba at Ethnologue (17th ed., 2013) Closed access icon
  4. ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Tapeba". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  5. ^ "Glottolog 2.4 – Adabe". Glottolog.org. Retrieved 13 July 2015.
  6. ^ "ISO 639-3 Change History". 01.sil.org. Retrieved 13 July 2015.
  7. ^ Sidwell, 2009, Classifying the Austroasiatic languages
  8. ^ "Ethnologue 14 report for language code:JIJ". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
  9. ^ "Ethnologue 14 report for language code:CKN". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
  10. ^ "Ethnologue 14 report for language code:LWD". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
  11. ^ "Ethnologue 14 report for language code:ORB". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
  12. ^ "Ethnologue 14 report for language code:MUF". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
  13. ^ "Ethnologue 14 report for language code:NCQ". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
  14. ^ "Ethnologue 14 report for language code:NKQ". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
  15. ^ "Ethnologue 14 report for language code:OSO". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
  16. ^ "Ethnologue 14 report for language code:RUR". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
  17. ^ "Ethnologue 14 report for language code:WBD". Ethnologue.com. Retrieved 24 September 2012.
  18. ^ Hurd, Conrad (8 August 2006). "Request Number 2006-016 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. Retrieved 6 January 2019.
  19. ^ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Miarra". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  20. ^ Hurd, Conrad (26 March 2007). "Request Number 2006-122 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. Retrieved 6 January 2019.
  21. ^ Hurd, Conrad (21 March 2007). "Request Number 2006-124 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. Retrieved 6 January 2019.
  22. ^ Holbrook, David J. (5 April 2007). "Request Number 2007-003 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. Retrieved 6 January 2019.
  23. ^ Peebles, Matt (1 September 2007). "Request Number 2007-254 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. Retrieved 6 January 2019.
  24. ^ Woodward, Mark (23 May 2007). "Request Number 2007-024 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. Retrieved 6 January 2019.
  25. ^ Hurd, Conrad (8 August 2006). "Request Number 2006-016 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. Retrieved 6 January 2019.
  26. ^ McLaughlin, John (3 March 2008). "Request Number 2008-030 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. Retrieved 12 July 2023.
  27. ^ Legère, Karsten (18 August 2011). "Request Number 2011-133 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. Retrieved 6 January 2019.
  28. ^ Bickford, J. Albert (31 January 2014). "Request Number 2014-010 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. Retrieved 6 January 2019.
  29. ^ "Request Number 2014-032 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. 25 July 2014. Retrieved 6 January 2019.
  30. ^ "639 Identifier Documentation: dzd". SIL International. Retrieved 13 February 2023.
  31. ^ "639 Identifier Documentation: xsj". SIL International. Retrieved 26 January 2019.
  32. ^ Dyer, Josh (28 August 2014). "Request Number 2014-059 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. Retrieved 6 January 2019.
  33. ^ "Request Number 2015-011 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. 9 March 2015. Retrieved 6 January 2019.
  34. ^ "Request Number 2015-032 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. 28 May 2015. Retrieved 6 January 2019.
  35. ^ Cheeseman, Nate (16 February 2016). "Request Number 2016-010 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. Retrieved 6 January 2019.
  36. ^ Bickford, Albert (23 September 2015). "Request Number 2016-002 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. Retrieved 6 January 2019.
  37. ^ Cheeseman, Nate (27 October 2015). "Request Number 2016-005 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. Retrieved 6 January 2019.
  38. ^ "Request Number 2016-004 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. 26 October 2015. Retrieved 6 January 2019.
  39. ^ Bickford, J. Albert (9 March 2017). "Request Number 2017-013 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. Retrieved 6 January 2019.
  40. ^ Legère, Karsten (18 May 2017). "Request Number 2017-017 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. Retrieved 6 January 2019.
  41. ^ Legère, Karsten (31 August 2016). "Request Number 2016-029 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. Retrieved 6 January 2019.
  42. ^ "Request Number 2018-016 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. 20 August 2018. Retrieved 15 January 2019.
  43. ^ Gehrmann, Ryan (22 January 2018). "Request Number 2018-008 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. Retrieved 25 January 2019.
  44. ^ "Request Number 2018-011 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. 9 August 2018. Retrieved 25 January 2019.
  45. ^ "Request Number 2019-017 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. 1 March 2019. Retrieved 5 February 2020.
  46. ^ "Request Number 2019-018 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. 4 March 2019. Retrieved 5 February 2020.
  47. ^ "Request Number 2019-013 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. 5 January 2019. Retrieved 5 February 2020.
  48. ^ "Request Number 2019-019 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. 4 March 2019. Retrieved 5 February 2020.
  49. ^ "Request Number 2019-020 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. 5 March 2019. Retrieved 5 February 2020.
  50. ^ "Request Number 2019-028 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. 14 March 2019. Retrieved 5 February 2020.
  51. ^ "Request Number 2019-029 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. 18 March 2019. Retrieved 5 February 2020.
  52. ^ "Request Number 2019-015 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. 16 February 2019. Retrieved 5 February 2020.
  53. ^ "Request Number 2019-026 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. 12 March 2019. Retrieved 5 February 2020.
  54. ^ "Request Number 2019-025 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. 7 March 2019. Retrieved 5 February 2020.
  55. ^ "Request Number 2019-034 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. 13 March 2019. Retrieved 5 February 2020.
  56. ^ "Request Number 2019-032 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. 13 March 2019. Retrieved 5 February 2020.
  57. ^ "2020-026 | Iso 639-3".
  58. ^ "Request Number 2021-015 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. 25 February 2021. Retrieved 4 February 2022.
  59. ^ "Request Number 2021-021 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. 26 April 2021. Retrieved 4 February 2022.
  60. ^ Turki, Houcemeddine (21 April 2021). "Request Number 2021-020 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. Retrieved 12 July 2023.
  61. ^ "Request Number 2022-012 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. 30 June 2022. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
  62. ^ "Request Number 2022-012 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. 30 June 2022. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
  63. ^ "Request Number 2022-011 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. 30 June 2022. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
  64. ^ "Request Number 2022-015 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. 30 June 2022. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
  65. ^ "Request Number 2022-009 for Change to ISO 639-3 Language Code" (PDF). SIL International. 24 June 2022. Retrieved 8 February 2023.
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