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Kurdish tribes

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Kurdish-inhabited areas (Kurdistan)

The following is a list of tribes of Kurdish people (Sorani Kurdish: هۆزە کوردیەکان), an ethnic group from the geo-cultural region of Kurdistan in Western Asia.

Armenia and Georgia

Kurdish tribes in Armenia and Georgia consist of Yazidis who arrived in Caucasus from the regions of Van, Kars and Dogubayazit during two main waves of migrations, the first wave taking place during the Russo-Ottoman wars of 19th century (1828-1829 and 1879-1882) and the second wave taking place during World War 1, especially during and after the Armenian genocide where Yazidis were also targeted alongside Armenians. Before migrating, Yazidis formed an integral part of Kurdish tribal interactions in the Ottoman Empire. The Yazidis of Armenia who arrived during the first wave of migrations, settled in Aparan and Talin provinces in the mountainous regions of Aragatz, whereas the Yazidis who arrived during the second wave settled in villages across Ashtarak, Echmiadzin and Armavir.[1]

Tribal confederations

The present tribes and tribal confederations with their sub-tribes are listed below:[2][3][4]

  • Xaltî
  • Anqosî
  • Axlerî

Zuqiriya Confederation

  • Baravî
  • Bûtikî
  • Belekerî
  • Dasinî
  • Divinî
  • Korkitiya
  • Kurtikî
  • Masekî
  • Chokhreshî
  • Memreshî
  • Mendesorî
  • Mendikî
  • Reshî
  • Reshkî
  • Shemsika
  • Sorî

Mehemdiya Confederation

  • Mehemdî
  • Memresha

Hesiniya Confederation

  • Belekerî
  • Beyandûrî
  • Bûvkî
  • Dasinî
  • Dawidî
  • Divinî
  • Dodkî
  • Gêloyî
  • Kashakhî
  • Mamtajî
  • Memîdokî
  • Mekhsûdî
  • Mûskî
  • Mîrangî
  • Qazanî
  • Qûchî
  • Remoshî
  • Sherqî
  • Tûzhkî
  • Ûdî
  • Ortilî (Disputed)

Sipki Confederation

  • Belî
  • Chîlî
  • Îsedizî
  • Kashakha
  • Karêyî
  • Kilêrî
  • Mikhayla
  • Pîvazî
  • Rejevî
  • Rojkî
  • Sahaniya
  • Stûrkî
  • Shanezera
  • Shemsika
  • Utî

Azerbaijan

A large portion of the centuries-old Kurdish population in present-day Azerbaijan was deported by the Soviet Union to Central Asia from the 1930s onwards. The remaining Kurdish population in the former Red Kurdistan area (Lachin and Kelbajar districts) was displaced by ethnic-Armenian forces during the first Nagorno-Karabakh War, whilst the Kurds outside of the conflict zone in Azerbaijan became heavily assimilated into Azerbaijani culture.[5][6][7]

The information on the tribes in Azerbaijan is from 1936:[8][9]

Tribes
Alihan Aliyan Babali Bargushat Bozlu Ferihkan Gajisam Gulukchi Hasenan Karachorlu Kelani
Kulekan Kulpucci Milan Pugian Pusian Shadmanli Sheylanli Sisiyan Sultan Tahmas Terter

Iraq

Map of the tribes of Iraq around 1950s by the CIA. The names of the Arab tribes are written in black; the names of the Kurdish tribes are in red.

Baghdad Governorate

The following tribes are present in Baghdad Governorate:

Diyala Governorate

The following tribes are present in Diyala Governorate:

Dohuk Governorate

The following tribes are present in Dohuk Governorate:[22][23][24]

  • Babiri tribe
  • Bamernî tribe
  • Barzani tribe
  • Basidkî tribe (Yezidi)
  • Berwari tribe
  • Belesinî tribe (Yezidi)
  • Birîmenî tribe (Yezidi)
  • Dina tribe (Yezidi)
  • Dinnadi tribe (Yezidi)[25]
  • Kochar tribe
  • Dolamarî tribe
  • Doski tribe
  • Dumilî tribe (Yezidi)
  • Ertuşi tribe
  • Guli tribe
  • Hewêrî tribe (Yezidi)[26]
  • Hekarî tribe (Yezidi)
  • Heraqî tribe (Yezidi)
  • Mamûsî tribe (Yezidi)
  • Mlhmbani tribe
  • Mamesh tribe
  • Misûsan tribe (Yezidi)
  • Mizûrî tribe
  • Nerway tribe
  • Nheli tribe
  • Pêdayî tribe (Yezidi)
  • Qaîdî tribe (Yezidi)
  • Qirnayî tribe (Yezidi)
  • Rêkanî tribe
  • Rûbanistî tribe (Yezidi)
  • Sharafani tribe
  • Sindî tribe
  • Sipna tribe
  • Silêvanî tribe[27]
  • Sûrçî tribe
  • Tirk tribe (Yezidi)
  • Tovi/Tuvi/Toviye tribe[28][29]
  • Xaltî tribe (Yezidi)
  • Xetarî tribe (Yezidi)
  • Zêbarî tribe

Erbil Governorate

The following tribes are present in Erbil Governorate:[30]

  • Balak tribe[31]
  • Ako tribe[32]
  • Barzani tribe
  • Barzinji tribe
  • Bilbas tribe
  • Bradost tribe
  • Dizayee tribe
  • Dolamari tribe[32]
  • Gerdi
  • Haruti tribe[32]
  • Herki tribe
  • Kawani tribe
  • Khailani tribe
  • Khoshnaw tribe
  • Mantik tribe
  • Nanakali tribe
  • Shwan tribe
  • Siani tribe
  • Siyan tribe
  • Surchi tribe
  • Zarari tribe
  • Zebari tribe

Halabja Governorate

Kirkuk Governorate

The following tribes are present in Kirkuk Governorate:[11]

Nineveh Governorate

The following tribes and confederations are present in Nineveh Governorate:[37][38][39]

Xorkan Tribal Confederation (Yezidi)

  • Aldexî tribe
  • Adiyan tribe
  • Aldîn tribe
  • Bekran tribe
  • Cefrî tribe
  • Çêlkan tribe
  • Dilkan tribe
  • Heskan tribe
  • Hewîrî tribe
  • Helîqî tribe
  • Kurkurka tribe
  • Mendikan tribe
  • Mûsanî tribe
  • Mehirkan tribe
  • Musqora tribe
  • Mala Bakê tribe
  • Qîçkan tribe
  • Qîranî tribe
  • Reshkan tribe
  • Simûqî tribe
  • Sherqiyan tribe
  • Shehwanî tribe

Cuwana Tribal Confederation (Yezidi)

  • Aqosî tribe
  • Bekira tribe
  • Çûkan tribe
  • Dilkan tribe
  • Emeran tribe
  • Hebaban/Hebabat tribe
  • Howêrî tribe
  • Hilêqî tribe
  • Heskan tribe
  • Kizan tribe
  • Korkorkî tribe
  • Mashekî tribe
  • Mihirkan tribe
  • Xinan tribe
  • Mala Xalitê tribe
  • Miskora tribe
  • Qîçikan tribe
  • Hesenî tribe
  • Nukrî tribe
  • Eldinan tribe
  • Usivan tribe
  • Xosî tribe
  • Elî Sorka tribe
  • Xifshan tribe

Other

Saladin Governorate

The following tribes are present in Saladin Governorate:

Sulaymaniyah Governorate

The following tribes are present in Sulaymaniyah Governorate:[43]

Wasit Governorate

The following tribes are present in Wasit Governorate:

Iran

Ardabil Province

The following tribes are present in Ardabil Province:[46]

  • Delikan tribe
  • Qolugjan tribe
  • Shatran tribe

East Azerbaijan Province

The following tribes are present in East Azerbaijan Province:

Fars Province

The following tribes are present in Fars Province:

Gilan Province

The following tribes are present in Gilan Province:[11]

Hamadan Province

The following tribes are present in Hamadan Province:

Ilam Province

The following tribes are present in Ilam Province:[54]

Isfahan Province

  • Golbaghi (Gulbaghi) tribe[59]

Kermanshah Province

The following tribes are present in Kermanshah Province:[11]

Khorasan Provinces

The following tribes are present in North Khorasan Province and Razavi Khorasan Province:[64]

  • Amar tribe
  • Baçvan tribe
  • Badlan tribe
  • Berivan tribe
  • Bicervan tribe
  • Çapeş tribe
  • Davan tribe
  • Hamazkan tribe
  • Izan tribe
  • Keyvan tribe
  • Mamyan tribe
  • Mastyan tribe
  • Mozdegan tribe
  • Palokan tribe
  • Qaçkan tribe
  • Qarabas tribe
  • Qaraçur tribe
  • Qaraman tribe
  • Reşwan tribe
  • Rudkan tribe
  • Sevkan tribe
  • Silsepuran tribe
  • Şadiyan tribe
  • Şeyhkan tribe
  • Şirvan tribe
  • Torosan tribe
  • Tukan tribe
  • Zafaran tribe
  • Zangalan tribe
  • Zaraqkan tribe
  • Zardkan tribe
  • Zeydan tribe

Kurdistan Province

The following tribes are present in Kurdistan Province:

Lorestan Province

The following tribes are present in Lorestan Province:

Mazandaran Province

The following tribes are present in Mazandaran Province:[11]

Qazvin Province

The following tribes are present in Qazvin Province:[11]

Tehran Province

The following tribes are present in Tehran Province:[11]

West Azerbaijan Province

The following tribes are present in West Azerbaijan Province:[11]

Yazd Province

  • Golbaghi (Gulbaghi) tribe[80]

Syria

Al-Hasakah and Raqqa Governorates

The following tribes are present in Al-Hasakah Governorate and Raqqa Governorate:[81][82][83][84][85]

  • Abajani tribe (Yezidi)
  • Abasan tribe
  • Adiya tribe (Yezidi)
  • Afshi tribe (Yezidi)
  • Aliyan tribe
  • Aşitan tribe
  • Bahcolan tribe (Yezidi)
  • Berazi tribe
  • Daqoran tribe
  • Dasikan tribe (Yezidi)
  • Dazwani tribe[86]
  • Dina tribe (Yezidi)
  • Dorkan tribe
  • Efshan tribe (Yezidi)
  • Gabara tribe
  • Hasenan tribe
  • Hawna tribe
  • Heverkan tribe
  • Jabia tribe
  • Kafnasa tribe (Yezidi)
  • Ketikan tribe
  • Khalta tribe (Yezidi)
  • Kikan tribe
  • Kiwakhi tribe (Yezidi)
  • Koçer tribe
  • Mahlami tribe
  • Mahoka tribe (Yezidi)
  • Marsini tribe
  • Mihirkan tribe (Yezidi)
  • Milan tribe
  • Miran tribe
  • Nimrdani tribe (Yezidi)
  • Omerkan tribe
  • Omeriyan tribe
  • Pinar Eliya tribe
  • Semoqa tribe (Yezidi)
  • Shifaqta tribe (Yezidi)
  • Sharqi tribe (Yezidi)
  • Şêxan tribe
  • Taqa tribe (Yezidi)

Aleppo Governorate

The following tribes are present in Aleppo Governorate:[87][88]

  • Amkan tribe
  • Berazi tribe[89]
  • Biyan tribe
  • Çêlka tribe (Yezidi)
  • Cûmiyan tribe
  • Dawudiya tribe (Yezidi)
  • Dimili tribe[90]
  • Dinadi tribe (Yezidi)
  • Heyştiyan tribe
  • Qopani tribe (Yezidi)
  • Reşwan tribe[90]
  • Reşkan tribe (Yezidi)
  • Rûbariyan tribe
  • Sheriqan tribe (Yezidi)
  • Şêxan tribe
  • Xaltî tribe (Yezidi)
  • Xastiyan tribe
  • Xerzan tribe

Turkey

Adıyaman Province

The following tribes are present in Adıyaman Province:

Ağrı Province

The following tribes are present in Ağrı Province and are all Shafi'i:[122]

  • Berjeri tribe
  • Jalali tribe
  • Hasenan tribe
  • Haydaran tribe
  • Memani tribe
  • Zilan tribe

Aksaray Province

The following tribes are present in Aksaray Province:

Ankara Province

The following tribes are present in Ankara Province:

Ardahan Province

The following tribes are present in Ardahan Province:[127]

  • Bezikan tribe
  • Cemaldînî tribe
  • Kaskan tribe
  • Sipkan tribe
  • Pîrebadî tribe
  • Zîlan tribe

Batman Province

The following tribes are present in Batman Province:

Bingöl Province

The following tribes are present in Bingöl Province:

Bitlis Province

The following tribes are present in Bitlis Province:

Black Sea and Marmara Regions

The following tribes are present in the Black Sea Region and Marmara Region:

Diyarbakır Province

The following tribes are present in Diyarbakır Province and are all Shafi'i:[166]

  • Bekirhan tribe
  • Bedikan tribe
  • Çaruma tribe
  • Dodikan tribe
  • Hancuk tribe
  • Hasani tribe
  • Hevedan tribe
  • Hiyan tribe
  • Izol tribe
  • Keşko tribe
  • Kulp tribe
  • Mendan tribe
  • Narik tribe
  • Omeran tribe
  • Paşur tribe
  • Peçari tribe
  • Şeyhdoda tribe
  • Zahori tribe

Elazığ Province

The following tribes are present in Elazığ Province and are all Hanafi unless noted:[167]

Erzincan Province

The following tribes are present in Erzincan Province:

Erzurum Province

The following tribes are present in Erzurum Province:[185]

  • Balaban tribe[186]
  • Belican tribe
  • Belikan tribe
  • Cibran tribe
  • Çarekan tribe
  • Dilxêran tribe
  • Dimilî tribe
  • Hasenan tribe
  • Sevkar tribe
  • Şadiyan tribe
  • Şexbizin tribe[187]
  • Xormekan tribe
  • Zerikan tribe

Gaziantep Province

The following tribes are present in Gaziantep Province and are all Hanafi unless noted:[188]

Greater Kars Provinces

The following tribes are present in Kars Province and Iğdır Province (one province until 1993) and are all Shafi'i unless noted:[190]

Gümüşhane Province

The following tribes are present in Gümüşhane Province and are all Alevi:[192]

  • Abasan tribe
  • Abdalan tribe
  • Arel tribe
  • Butkan tribe
  • Kurêşan tribe
  • Lolan tribe
  • Şadiyan tribe[193]
  • Şeyhhasan tribe
  • Xormekan tribe

Hakkâri Province

The following tribes are present in Hakkâri Province:[194]

  • Begzade tribe
  • Diri tribe
  • Doski tribe
  • Ertuşi tribe
  • Gerdî tribe
  • Gewdan tribe
  • Giravî tribe
  • Goyan tribe
  • Herkî tribe
  • Humara tribe
  • Jirkî tribe
  • Mamxûran tribe
  • Oramar tribe
  • Pinyanişî tribe
  • Qeşûran tribe
  • Silehi tribe
  • Zerzan tribe

Kahramanmaraş Province

The following tribes are present in Kahramanmaraş Province:

Kayseri Province

The following tribes are present in Kayseri Province:

Kilis Province

The following tribes are present in Kilis Province and are all Hanafi:[199]

  • Delikan tribe

Kırşehir Province

The following tribes are present in Kırşehir Province:

Konya Province

The following tribes are present in Konya Province:

Malatya Province

The following tribes are present in Malatya Province:

Mardin Province

The following tribes are present in Mardin Province:

Muş Province

The following tribes are present in Muş Province and are all Shafi'i unless noted:[258]

  • Abdalan tribe
  • Badikan tribe
  • Bekiran tribe
  • Bonaki tribe
  • Bozikan tribe
  • Cibran tribe
  • Çeçen tribe (see Chechen Kurds, Hanafi and Shafi'i)
  • Çerek tribe (Hanafi and Shafi'i)
  • Çukur tribe
  • Elmali tribe
  • Halefbey tribe
  • Hasenan tribe
  • Haydaran tribe
  • Heridi tribe
  • Hiyan tribe
  • Hizan tribe
  • Huyut tribe
  • Jalali tribe
  • Lezgi tribe (Hanafi and Shafi'i)
  • Lolan tribe (Alevi)
  • Parsink tribe
  • Rektan tribe
  • Savdan tribe
  • Top tribe
  • Zamanağa tribe

Siirt Province

The following tribes are present in Siirt Province and are all Shafi'i:

Sivas Province

The following tribes are present in Sivas Province:

Şanlıurfa Province

The following tribes are present in Şanlıurfa Province:

Şırnak Province

The following tribes are present in Şırnak Province:[290]

  • Alikan
  • Aluwa
  • Amara
  • Bajarî
  • Batûyan/Botikan
  • Dêrşewî
  • Domanan
  • Dorikan
  • Dûdêran
  • Garîstan
  • Gewdan
  • Giravî
  • Girkê Emo
  • Giteyî
  • Goyan
  • Harûnan
  • Hecî Eliya
  • Hêsinan
  • Jirkî
  • Jîlyan
  • Kîçan
  • Mamxûran
  • Meman
  • Mîran
  • Mûsareşan
  • Omerkan
  • Qeşûran
  • Salihan
  • Sindî
  • Sipêrti
  • Soran
  • Şikakî
  • Şirnexî
  • Tayan
  • Welatî
  • Xêrikan
  • Zedkan
  • Zeherî
  • Zêvkî

Tunceli Province

The following tribes are present in Tunceli Province:

Van Province

The following tribes are present in Van Province and are all Shafi'i:[297]

  • Adaman tribe
  • Alan tribe
  • Asiyan tribe
  • Buriki tribe
  • Botan tribe
  • Ertuşi tribe
  • Ezdinan tribe
  • Geloi tribe
  • Hacidiran tribe
  • Haydaran tribe
  • Kurêşan tribe
  • Manhuran tribe
  • Meleyan tribe
  • Memani tribe
  • Milan tribe
  • Pinyaniş tribe
  • Shekak tribe
  • Şemsikan tribe
  • Takuri tribe

Historical tribes

Notes

  1. ^ de la Bretèque, Estelle Amy (2021-04-22), "The Yezidis in the Soviet Union", The Cambridge History of the Kurds, Cambridge University Press, pp. 458–474, doi:10.1017/9781108623711.019, ISBN 978-1-108-62371-1, S2CID 235524798, retrieved 2022-06-22
  2. ^ Kereme Anqosi (January 2005). "The Yezidi Kurds' tribes & clans of south Caucasus". International Journal of Kurdish Studies. 19 (1). Retrieved 18 May 2020.
  3. ^ OMARKHALI, Khanna (2008-12-31). "On the Structure of the Yezidi Clan and Tribal System and its Terminology among the Yezidis of the Caucasus". Journal of Kurdish Studies. 6: 104–119. doi:10.2143/jks.6.0.2038092. ISSN 1370-7205.
  4. ^ Yazidis; Yazidis. "The name of the tribes and genera of the Yezidis of the South Caucasus". Yazidis.Az. Retrieved 2021-06-13.
  5. ^ Tatiana Fedoroud Aristova (1966). Курды Закавказья: историко-этнографический очерк (in Russian). Izd-vo "Nauka," Glav. red. vostochnoĭ lit-ry. pp. 48 & 53.
  6. ^ "Seven Years of Conflict in Nagorno-Karabakh" (PDF). Human Rights Watch: 14. 1994. Retrieved 17 March 2020.
  7. ^ "Kurds". Minority Rights. 19 June 2015. Retrieved 19 May 2020.
  8. ^ Гейбуллаев, Гиясаддин Аскер оглы (1986). Топонимия Азербайджана (in Russian). p. 102.
  9. ^ Budagov B.A., Geybullayev (2009). Explanatory Dictionary of Azerbaijani Origin Places' Names in Armenia (PDF). Baku. p. 141. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 June 2017. Retrieved 19 May 2020.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  10. ^ "Iraq: Information on the Kurdish Feyli (Faily/Falli) families, including their main area of residence and their relationship with other Kurdish groups and the Iraqi regime". Refworld. 1996. Retrieved 17 May 2020.
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q "Kurdish tribes". Iranica Online. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
  12. ^ Soane (1918), pp. 7–8.
  13. ^ Adel Soheil (2018). The Iraqi Ba'th Regime's Atrocities Against the Faylee Kurds: Nation-State Formation Distorted. ISBN 978-91-7785-892-8.
  14. ^ Soane (1918), p. 14.
  15. ^ a b C. J. Edmonds (1936). "Soane at Halabja". Journal of the Royal Central Asian Society. 23. The Royal Central Asian Society: 622. doi:10.1080/03068373608730766.
  16. ^ "Two abducted Kurdish Kaka'i farmers found killed in Khanaqin". Kurdistan24. 11 May 2020. Retrieved 14 May 2020.
  17. ^ a b c "خانقین" (in Persian). دانشنامه جهان اسلام. Retrieved 13 May 2020.
  18. ^ a b Soane (1918), p. 35.
  19. ^ "Iraqi Kurdish tribe fights Islamic State alone in disputed area". Ekurd. 21 September 2014. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
  20. ^ Soane (1918), p. 37.
  21. ^ Soane (1918), p. 36.
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  23. ^ "Ezidische Stämmen in Shengal und Shêxan". Archived from the original on 2013-06-29.
  24. ^ NA, NA (2003-01-01). Mustafa Barzani and the Kurdish Liberation Movement. Palgrave Macmillan US. ISBN 978-0-312-29316-1.
  25. ^ Maisel, Sebastian (2016-12-24). Yezidis in Syria: Identity Building among a Double Minority. Lexington Books. ISBN 978-0-7391-7775-4.
  26. ^ Sykes, Mark (1908). "The Kurdish Tribes of the Ottoman Empire". The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland. 38: 451–486. doi:10.2307/2843309. JSTOR 2843309.
  27. ^ Eagleton (1988). An Introduction to Kurdish Rugs and Other Weavings. p. 30.
  28. ^ Maunsell, F. R. (1901). "Central Kurdistan". The Geographical Journal. 18 (2): 121–141. doi:10.2307/1775333. JSTOR 1775333.
  29. ^ "UN Archives Geneva - UN Archives Geneva" (PDF).
  30. ^ "Refugee Review Tribunal - Australia" (PDF). ECOI. p. 2. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
  31. ^ Evan Mati; Hugo de Boer (2010). "Contemporary Knowledge of Dye Plant Species and Natural Dye Use in Kurdish Autonomous Region, Iraq". Economic Botany. 64 (2): 139. doi:10.1007/s12231-010-9118-z. S2CID 25303429.
  32. ^ a b c d e Archibald Roosevelt (1944). "Kurdish tribal map of Iraq : showing the Iraq portion of Kurdistan and the major Kurdish tribal divisions within Iraq". Yale University.
  33. ^ Soane (1918), p. 5.
  34. ^ Soane (1918), p. 12.
  35. ^ a b "Kaka'i". Iranicaonline. Retrieved 14 May 2020.
  36. ^ Eagleton, William (1988). An Introduction to Kurdish Rugs and Other Weavings. Scorpion. ISBN 978-0-905906-50-8.
  37. ^ Henry Field (1951). "Anthropology of Iraq: The Northern Jazira". Peabody Museaum of American Archaeology and Ethnology. 11 (1). Harvard University: 58–61.
  38. ^ "KURDICA - Die Kurdische Enzyklopädie - Ezidische Stämmen in Shengal u…". archive.fo. 2013-06-29. Archived from the original on 2013-06-29.
  39. ^ Edmonds, C. J. (2002-03-21). A Pilgrimage to Lalish. Psychology Press. ISBN 978-0-947593-28-5.
  40. ^ "Bajalan". Iranica Online. Retrieved 14 May 2020.
  41. ^ حه‌مىد گه‌ردى (2006). هوزى گه‌ردى له کوردستان و جىهاندا : مىرئاوده‌لى، بابان، فه‌ىزووڵڵابه‌گى، گه‌رگه‌رى، عگێدات، گولى : له‌کۆڵىنه‌وه‌ىه‌کى مه‌ىدانى مێژووىىه (in Kurdish).
  42. ^ Soane (1918), p. 25.
  43. ^ "Iraq: Sulaymaniyah Governorate assessment report". Reliefweb. 31 August 2006. Retrieved 14 May 2020.
  44. ^ a b "Camcamal". Iranica Online. Retrieved 17 May 2020.[permanent dead link]
  45. ^ "The Feyli Kurds pay the price for their ethnicity and sect". Kirkuknow. 15 May 2020. Retrieved 17 May 2020.
  46. ^ "Delikanlu". Iranica Online. Retrieved 15 May 2020.
  47. ^ a b Oberling, Pierre (1964-12-31). "The Tribes of Qaraca Dag: A Brief History". Oriens. 17: 60–95. doi:10.2307/1580019. ISSN 0078-6527. JSTOR 1580019.
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