Jump to content

Establishment of breastfeeding

Add links
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
An infant receiving breastfeeding.[1]

Establishment of breastfeeding refers to the initiation of providing breast milk of mother to baby. According to the World Health Organization(WHO),[2] breastfeeding is the best way to provide nourishment, including essential nutrients, energy and antibodies, to infants and toddlers. The start of breastfeeding is supported by the milk production which depends on the development of internal and external breast structure and hormonal control on milk secretion.[3] Besides milk supply, adopting the correct approach of breastfeeding helps build up the maternal bond, which in turn promotes breastfeeding.[4] Not only does nursing strengthen the mother-child relationship, but it also improves the intelligence and immunity of breastfed children and diminishes breastfeeding mothers' risks to have ovarian and breast cancer.[2]

After establishing breastfeeding, it is crucial to ensure a constant milk supply to infants. To maintain milk production, postpartum mothers are recommended to have various food and remedies, providing minerals and vitamins for infants' growth and mothers' recovery.[5] For example, vitamin D is instrumental for infants' bones and skeletal muscles development.[6] Concerning the regimens promoting milk supply, the western one suggests herbal tea drinking[7] while the eastern one advises massaging various acupuncture points.[8]

However, activities reducing the quality of breast milk, such as alcohol drinking and smoking, should be avoided for infant's health. Additionally, mothers with diseases interfering breastfeeding, such as mastitis,[9] are suggested to seek professional medical assistance instead of following conventional remedies to ameliorate nursing difficulties.[10]

Anatomical significance of breast

[edit]
Structure of human breast.[11]

A breast is mainly composed of the glandular and adipose (fatty) tissues which are linked together by ligaments.

Concerning the structure of glandular tissue, it is composed of ducts and alveoli. These alveoli are small hollow cavities that cluster together to form lobules. These lobules further clump together to form lobes that are responsible for the production and storage of milk. The alveolar cells have their linings consisting of muscle cells, which plays a vital role in the ejection of milk by contracting the lobes during lactation.[3][12] Subsequently, the already-made milk is drained outside through the ducts connecting the milk-secreting lobes and nipple.[12]

Regarding the adipose tissue present between lobes, it is important for the alveolar growth and ductal development in the mammary gland. The maturation of alveolar cells is supported by white adipose tissue and brown adipose tissue in breast, preparing the alveoli for milk synthesis during lactation.[13] The growth of ductal epithelium is stimulated by leptin,[3] a hormone secreted by mature breast fatty tissue, to make the milk ducts ready for the passage of milk.

Apart from the internal structures, the external features of the breast are also involved in breastfeeding. Nipples are supplied with milk ducts, muscle and nerve fibres. The pigmented circular area surrounding the nipples is the areola containing Montgomery's glands that synthesized sebum.[3][14] The function of this sebaceous fluid is to protect the skin of the nipples and areolar by reducing frictions during breastfeeding.[15] Not only does the fluid lubricates to ensure a smooth feeding, but it also releases a salient fragrance to entice the baby to approach the breast to initiate feeding.[16]

Mechanism of breast milk supply

[edit]

The mechanism of milk supply is mainly controlled by three hormones, prolactin, oxytocin, and feedback inhibitor of lactation.

Prolactin

[edit]

Prolactin, produced in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland, is the major hormone responsible for milk production. During pregnancy, the level of prolactin rises to trigger the development of mammary tissue in the breast to prepare it for milk supply.[17] Yet, due to high levels of progesterone and oestrogen, which are female hormones released from the placenta, milk production is prohibited until the removal of the placenta after labour. When the inhibition from progesterone and oestrogen fades, prolactin can be increased to stimulate the production of milk which is stored in the myoepithelium of the mammary gland.[18] In addition, the suckling action of the babies stimulates nipples, resulting in the secretion of prolactin.[3][19] The prolactin hormone will reach its highest level in blood approximately 90 minutes after breastfeeding, preparing milk for the next feeding.

Oxytocin

[edit]
Chemical structure of oxytocin.[20]

Oxytocin, released by the posterior lobe of the pituitary, is so-called the 'let-down' hormone that induces the ejection of milk stored in breast.[18][21] This hormone is secreted depending on the mothers' sensations and thoughts.[22] For instance, the suckling action of a child and the crying of a baby can promote the rapid increase of maternal oxytocin. During breastfeeding, oxytocin triggers the ejection of milk by contracting the myoepithelium surrounding alveoli in the mammary gland.[3]

Feedback Inhibitor of Lactation (FIL)

[edit]

In contrast to prolactin and oxytocin, FIL poses an inhibitory effect on milk synthesis. It gradually reduces the amount of milk produced by suspending the milk secretion when the frequency of breastfeeding is lowered.[18] This guarantees the production of a proper volume of milk, thereby avoiding overfilling the breast with milk. In short, the level of FIL rises during the accumulation of milk to slow down milk secretion. While breast is emptier, FIL level drops to allow the milk production.[3][23]

Process of breastfeeding

[edit]

Techniques are required to facilitate and maintain good-quality breastfeeding, and weaning. Good breastfeeding practice benefits both children and mothers.

Before breastfeeding

[edit]

Nipples can be pressed with sanitized hands to allow milk retained in the last feeding to flow out, following by cleaning it with warm water. To clear the blockage of mammary glands and further facilitate milk secretion, breasts can be kneaded[24][9] or have their sides swept with a wooden comb.[8]

During and after breastfeeding

[edit]
A man holding a baby in the correct diagonal breastfeeding position.[25]

During breastfeeding, babies are suggested to be hugged diagonally and fed with a constant middle speed to prevent overfeeding. After feeding, babies can be slightly lifted and have their back gently patted, preventing regurgitation of milk.[24]

Infants are recommended to be fed every three hours and the milk-drinking pattern is altered upon babies' exposure to alcohol.[9] More care are required for the preterm infants, who have immature coordination between sucking and swallowing.[26] Thus, tube feeding is used to feed preterm infants breastmilk while preventing choking.[27] The transition from tube-feeding to oral feeding can be facilitated by oral sensorimotor interventions, which are oral and tongue exercises.[27]

Mothers are recommended to express milk at least three times a day. If milk production is inadequate, formula milk and baby food should be added to the diet.[24] On the contrary, excess milk is strongly advised to be expressed out by either hand expression or pumped out and stored in a container with a lid in the refrigerator. Stored milk can be dated to avoid giving low-quality milk to infants. Refrigerated milk has to be thawed at room temperature and mixed thoroughly to ensure an even distribution of fat before intake.[28]

Weaning

[edit]
Infant formula.[29]

Weaning is the transition of baby's diet from breast milk to semi-solid food, which usually starts from the sixth month onward.[30] Suggested by WHO, six-month-old babies who are introduced to their first solid foods shall also be complementarily fed with breast milk or infant formula as the main drink until two years old or above.[31][32] The reason for this practice is that breastfeeding not only helps the digestive system with the breaking down of solid foods but it also supplies balanced nutrition for the babies.[23]

Apart from offering solid foods, the frequency of breastfeeding should be reduced gradually to avoid possible adverse events, such as overfull. It is easier to begin with cutting down the least favoured regular daily breastfeed. The pace of weaning is up to the mother and baby, but it is recommended to adopt a progressive reduction approach.[33] When the mother wants to push forward the transition to weaning, she can further suspend another least favoured breastfeed after a couple of days.[31] For babies below one year, it is better to substitute the dropped breastfeed with a bottle of infant formula to guarantee adequate nutrition. As for the babies above one year old, they do not require this kind of replacement as they have already gained nutrients from a wide range of foods and drinks such as whole milk.[23]

Relationship establishment with baby through breastfeeding

[edit]

Breastfeeding is an intimate physical contact between mother and baby, which allows the establishment of mutual trust, caring, and connectedness as the foundation of a close parent-child relationship.[21] Breastfeeding enhances the mother-child bonding through manipulating the feelings of the baby and mother.

A mother holds up her child, showing a maternal bond.[34]

Regarding the babies, breastfeeding is a special physical interaction that provides comforting, analgesic, and relaxing effects. During weaning, breastfeeding is an approach to comfort the babies when they cry at night. Even the toddler's negative feelings and discomfort can be eased by feeding with breastmilk.[23] These show the consolation given by breastfeeding in strengthening the bonding between mothers and babies.

As for the mothers, oxytocin released during lactation does not only promote milk supply but it also triggers the expression of motherhood. Although the mechanism of oxytocin-inducing maternal love has yet to be elucidated, various studies indicate that oxytocin encourages the mammalian motherly behaviours and provides anti-stress effects.[35] It is generally believed that oxytocin-influencing motherhood can reinforce the attachment between mothers and babies.[4]

Food, activities, and disease affecting quality of establishment breastfeeding

[edit]

Health of postpartum mothers and infants determines the quality of breastfeeding establishment. Establishment is aided by factors promoting sufficient milk supply but it is susceptible to mastitis.[36]

Beneficial foods for mothers and infants

[edit]

Vitamins and minerals taken by mothers are delivered to infants via breastfeeding.[5] Various vitamins are recommended for breastfeeding mothers, including vitamin A, vitamin D, vitamin C, and vitamin B.[9] Maternal vitamin A is supplied to infants to strengthen body development, especially lungs.[37] Vitamin D maintains the balance between calcium and phosphate level to promote formation of infants' skeleton and skeletal muscle .[38][39] Vitamin C promotes absorption of iron for blood synthesis.[9] Vitamin B may improve cognitive function.[40]

Minerals are also essential for infant growth, including calcium which is responsible for rapid skeletal development.[9][41] For mothers, increase in calcium intake replenishes the calcium given to baby and prevent excessive reduction in body mineral density.[42] If maternal calcium is inadequate, breastfeeding mothers will have higher risks to develop osteoporosis in their postmenopausal period.[42][43] Moreover, iron should be taken to maintain the hematological and neurological development of infant[44] and mothers' health.[45]

Furthermore, high consumption of fruits and vegetables enrich the diversity and abundance of nutrients in breastmilk.[24] It might alleviate the psychological distress of postpartum mothers[46] and the risk of postpartum depression.[47]

Harmful food and activities for infants

[edit]
Chemical structure of nicotine.[48]
  • Breastfeeding mothers should consult doctors before drug consumption.[9] Otherwise, the drugs in breastmilk will affect the children's metabolism.
  • Low dose intake of accumulative caffeine by mothers would not affect infants. However, with a continuous maternal accumulation of caffeine by having more than 6 cups of caffeine-containing drinks, the breastfed babies become hyperactive and have their sleeping patterns significantly affected.[9]
  • Alcohol diffused in breastmilk blocks the release of oxytocin and milk.[9][49] Moderate level of alcohol introduces a detrimental effect on motor development of breastfeeding infants.[50][51]
  • Mothers should cease smoking so that nicotine, which brings harmful effects to health, would not be transferred to babies.[52][53]

Methods to promote milk supply

[edit]

In western, galactagogue is a food that aims at increasing milk production. Natural galactagogue mix, including herbal tea, might enhance milk secretion.[7] Pharmacological galactagogues, i.e. medications, also show their abilities in boosting milk production, e.g. domperidone.[9][54][55]

In Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM), Chinese herbal medicine[24] and tuina massage can improve milk production.[8] Papaya fish[56] soup increases production and nutrient of milk. Fish enriches the protein composition of milk while fish oil raises the proportion beneficial fatty acid in milk.[57]  

Massage can treat problems of breastfeeding and milk supply.[58] In TCM, acupuncture points including Danzhong (CV17), Shaoshang (LU11) and Hegu (LI4) can be rubbed or acupunctured to promote milk secretion.[24]

Mastitis induces inflammation and swelling of breast.[59]

Mastitis

[edit]

Mastitis is caused by infection of Staphylococcus aureus.[9][24] Its risk factors include damaged nipple and blockage of the mammary gland caused by oversupply of milk.[9] Due to inflammation, these mothers will have an ill feeling. Their breasts will have lumps and become swollen, red, and painful after infection.[9][10][36][60]

Apart from antibiotics prescription, such as penicillinase-resistant penicillin,[9] mastitis can be treated with effective milk removal by increasing feeding frequency, usage of pump, and massage on the blocked area on breast.[8][9][10][36] Warming breasts and massaging acupuncture points, such as Tianxi (SP18) and Shidou (SP17),[9] facilitate the clearance of blockage and pain relief.[24]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "International BreastFeeding Centre | What´s missing in helping mothers with breastfeeding?". Retrieved 2021-04-12.
  2. ^ a b "Breastfeeding". www.who.int. Retrieved 2021-04-01.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g Kothari, Charu; Diorio, Caroline; Durocher, Francine (2020-08-11). "The Importance of Breast Adipose Tissue in Breast Cancer". International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 21 (16): 5760. doi:10.3390/ijms21165760. ISSN 1422-0067. PMC 7460846. PMID 32796696.
  4. ^ a b Kim, Sohye; Strathearn, Lane (2016). "Oxytocin and Maternal Brain Plasticity". New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development. 2016 (153): 59–72. doi:10.1002/cad.20170. ISSN 1520-3247. PMC 5181786. PMID 27589498.
  5. ^ a b Keikha, Mojtaba; Shayan-Moghadam, Ramin; Bahreynian, Maryam; Kelishadi, Roya (January 2021). "Nutritional supplements and mother's milk composition: a systematic review of interventional studies". International Breastfeeding Journal. 16 (1): 1. doi:10.1186/s13006-020-00354-0. ISSN 1746-4358. PMC 7780633. PMID 33397426.
  6. ^ Tan, May Loong; Abrams, Steven A; Osborn, David A (2020-12-11). "Vitamin D supplementation for term breastfed infants to prevent vitamin D deficiency and improve bone health". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2020 (12): CD013046. doi:10.1002/14651858.cd013046.pub2. ISSN 1465-1858. PMC 8812278. PMID 33305822. S2CID 228101037.
  7. ^ a b Khan, Tahir Mehmood; Wu, David Bin-Chia; Dolzhenko, Anton V. (2017-11-30). "Effectiveness of fenugreek as a galactagogue: A network meta-analysis". Phytotherapy Research. 32 (3): 402–412. doi:10.1002/ptr.5972. ISSN 0951-418X. PMID 29193352. S2CID 3701644.
  8. ^ a b c d 吕, 明 (2016). 推拿学 (in Chinese) (2 ed.). Beijing: China Medical Science Press. ISBN 9787506785778.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Argiriou, Vangelis (2016-07-06). "Breastfeeding: A Guide for the Medical Profession, 8th edition, by Ruth A. Lawrence and Robert M. Lawrence. Elsevier, Saunders, Mosby, Churchill, 2016. ISBN 9780323357760". Acta Paediatrica. 105 (8): 983. doi:10.1111/apa.13474. ISSN 0803-5253.
  10. ^ a b c Association, Australian Breastfeeding (Sep 2019). "Mastitis". Australian Breastfeeding Association. Retrieved 2021-04-01.
  11. ^ "Breast Structure: Image Details - NCI Visuals Online". visualsonline.cancer.gov. Retrieved 2021-04-12.
  12. ^ a b "Breast Anatomy | SEER Training". training.seer.cancer.gov. Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  13. ^ Colleluori, Georgia; Perugini, Jessica; Barbatelli, Giorgio; Cinti, Saverio (2021-03-22). "Mammary gland adipocytes in lactation cycle, obesity and breast cancer". Reviews in Endocrine & Metabolic Disorders. 22 (2): 241–255. doi:10.1007/s11154-021-09633-5. ISSN 1573-2606. PMC 8087566. PMID 33751362.
  14. ^ "Anatomy of the Breasts". www.hopkinsmedicine.org. Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  15. ^ Stone, Kimberly; Wheeler, Amanda (2015-10-01). "A Review of Anatomy, Physiology, and Benign Pathology of the Nipple". Annals of Surgical Oncology. 22 (10): 3236–3240. doi:10.1245/s10434-015-4760-4. ISSN 1534-4681. PMID 26242366. S2CID 240960.
  16. ^ Mitchell, Katrina B.; Johnson, Helen M.; Eglash, Anne; Young, Michal; Noble, Larry; Reece-Stremtan, Sarah; Bartick, Melissa; Calhoun, Sarah; Dodd, Sarah; Elliott-Rudder, Megan; Kair, Laura Rachel (2019-03-20). "ABM Clinical Protocol #30: Breast Masses, Breast Complaints, and Diagnostic Breast Imaging in the Lactating Woman". Breastfeeding Medicine. 14 (4): 208–214. doi:10.1089/bfm.2019.29124.kjm. ISSN 1556-8253. PMID 30892931.
  17. ^ Al-Chalabi, Mustafa; Bass, Autumn N.; Alsalman, Ihsan (2021), "Physiology, Prolactin", StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, PMID 29939606, retrieved 2021-04-09
  18. ^ a b c Shah, Rutvi; Sabir, Sarah; Alhawaj, Ali F. (2021), "Physiology, Breast Milk", StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, PMID 30969612, retrieved 2021-03-31
  19. ^ Lopez‐Vicchi, Felicitas; Winne, Catalina De; Brie, Belen; Sorianello, Eleonora; Ladyman, Sharon R.; Becu‐Villalobos, Damasia (2020). "Metabolic functions of prolactin: Physiological and pathological aspects". Journal of Neuroendocrinology. 32 (11): e12888. doi:10.1111/jne.12888. ISSN 1365-2826. PMID 33463813. S2CID 225744606.
  20. ^ "File:Oxytocin.svg", Wikipedia, retrieved 2021-04-12
  21. ^ a b Uvnäs Moberg, Kerstin; Ekström-Bergström, Anette; Buckley, Sarah; Massarotti, Claudia; Pajalic, Zada; Luegmair, Karolina; Kotlowska, Alicia; Lengler, Luise; Olza, Ibone; Grylka-Baeschlin, Susanne; Leahy-Warren, Patricia (2020). "Maternal plasma levels of oxytocin during breastfeeding-A systematic review". PLOS ONE. 15 (8): e0235806. Bibcode:2020PLoSO..1535806U. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0235806. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 7406087. PMID 32756565.
  22. ^ Sriraman, Natasha K. (2017-12-01). "The Nuts and Bolts of Breastfeeding: Anatomy and Physiology of Lactation". Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent Health Care. 47 (12): 305–310. doi:10.1016/j.cppeds.2017.10.001. ISSN 1538-5442. PMID 29246381.
  23. ^ a b c d "How to stop breastfeeding". nhs.uk. 2020-12-07. Retrieved 2021-03-31.
  24. ^ a b c d e f g h Zhang, Boli (2019). Pediatrics in Chinese Medicine. China Press of Traditional Chinese Medicine. ISBN 978-7513251808.
  25. ^ GovPics, Maryland (2013-08-29), English: Governor O'Malley Infant Mortality Rate Press Conference by Tom Nappi at Baltimore Medical System?s Highlandtown Healthy Living Center, Baltimore, Maryland, retrieved 2021-04-13
  26. ^ Seiiedi-Biarag, Leila; Mirghafourvand, Mojgan (2020-04-23). "The effect of massage on feeding intolerance in preterm infants: a systematic review and meta-analysis study". Italian Journal of Pediatrics. 46 (1): 52. doi:10.1186/s13052-020-0818-4. ISSN 1824-7288. PMC 7181521. PMID 32326971.
  27. ^ a b Grassi*, Angela; Sgherri*, Giada; Chorna, Olena; Marchi, Viviana; Gagliardi, Luigi; Cecchi, Francesca; Laschi, Cecilia; Guzzetta, Andrea (2019). "Early Intervention to Improve Sucking in Preterm Newborns: a systematic review of qualitative study". Advances in Neonatal Care. 19 (2): 97–109. doi:10.1097/ANC.0000000000000543. ISSN 1536-0903. PMID 30199390. S2CID 52185889.
  28. ^ CDC (2021-02-12). "Proper Storage and Preparation of Breast Milk". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 2021-03-31.
  29. ^ "File:Infant formula.jpg", Wikipedia, retrieved 2021-04-12
  30. ^ Rocha, Isabela Silva; Lolli, Luiz Fernando; Fujimaki, Mitsue; Gasparetto, André; Rocha, Najara Barbosa da; Rocha, Isabela Silva; Lolli, Luiz Fernando; Fujimaki, Mitsue; Gasparetto, André; Rocha, Najara Barbosa da (November 2018). "Influência da autoconfiança materna sobre o aleitamento materno exclusivo aos seis meses de idade: uma revisão sistemática". Ciência & Saúde Coletiva (in Portuguese). 23 (11): 3609–3619. doi:10.1590/1413-812320182311.20132016. ISSN 1413-8123. PMID 30427434. S2CID 196536058.
  31. ^ a b "Infant and young child feeding". www.who.int. Retrieved 2021-04-12.
  32. ^ Cichero, J. a. Y. (2016). "Introducing solid foods using baby-led weaning vs. spoon-feeding: A focus on oral development, nutrient intake and quality of research to bring balance to the debate". Nutrition Bulletin. 41 (1): 72–77. doi:10.1111/nbu.12191. ISSN 1467-3010.
  33. ^ D'Auria, Enza; Bergamini, Marcello; Staiano, Annamaria; Banderali, Giuseppe; Pendezza, Erica; Penagini, Francesca; Zuccotti, Gian Vincenzo; Peroni, Diego Giampietro; Italian Society of Pediatrics (2018-05-03). "Baby-led weaning: what a systematic review of the literature adds on". Italian Journal of Pediatrics. 44 (1): 49. doi:10.1186/s13052-018-0487-8. ISSN 1824-7288. PMC 5934812. PMID 29724233.
  34. ^ "File:MaternalBond.jpg", Wikipedia, retrieved 2021-04-12
  35. ^ Krol, Kathleen M.; Grossmann, Tobias (2018-06-22). "Psychological effects of breastfeeding on children and mothers". Bundesgesundheitsblatt - Gesundheitsforschung - Gesundheitsschutz. 61 (8): 977–985. doi:10.1007/s00103-018-2769-0. ISSN 1436-9990. PMC 6096620. PMID 29934681.
  36. ^ a b c "Mastitis". nhs.uk. 2018-10-03. Retrieved 2021-04-11.
  37. ^ "WHO | Vitamin A supplementation to improve treatment outcomes among children diagnosed with respiratory infections". WHO. Archived from the original on April 27, 2014. Retrieved 2021-03-31.
  38. ^ Girgis, Christian M. (2019-07-16). "Vitamin D and Skeletal Muscle: Emerging Roles in Development, Anabolism and Repair". Calcified Tissue International. 106 (1): 47–57. doi:10.1007/s00223-019-00583-4. ISSN 0171-967X. PMID 31312865. S2CID 197421789.
  39. ^ Christakos, Sylvia; Li, Shanshan; DeLa Cruz, Jessica; Verlinden, Lieve; Carmeliet, Geert (2019), Stern, Paula H. (ed.), "Vitamin D and Bone", Bone Regulators and Osteoporosis Therapy, vol. 262, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 47–63, doi:10.1007/164_2019_338, ISBN 978-3-030-57377-5, PMID 31792684, S2CID 208608759, retrieved 2021-04-14
  40. ^ CDC (2019-12-14). "Do infants get enough B12 from breast milk?". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 2021-03-31.
  41. ^ Vannucci, Letizia; Fossi, Caterina; Quattrini, Sara; Guasti, Leonardo; Pampaloni, Barbara; Gronchi, Giorgio; Giusti, Francesca; Romagnoli, Cecilia; Cianferotti, Luisella; Marcucci, Gemma; Brandi, Maria Luisa (2018-12-05). "Calcium Intake in Bone Health: A Focus on Calcium-Rich Mineral Waters". Nutrients. 10 (12): 1930. doi:10.3390/nu10121930. ISSN 2072-6643. PMC 6316542. PMID 30563174.
  42. ^ a b "Pregnancy, Breastfeeding and Bone Health | NIH Osteoporosis and Related Bone Diseases National Resource Center". www.bones.nih.gov. Retrieved 2021-03-31.
  43. ^ Sperling, R. (2020). Obstetrics and gynecology (Mount Sinai expert guides). Wiley Blackwell. ISBN 9781119450115.
  44. ^ CDC (2020-09-21). "Do infants get enough iron from breast milk?". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 2021-03-31.
  45. ^ "WHO guidance helps detect iron deficiency and protect brain development - PAHO/WHO | Pan American Health Organization". www.paho.org. Retrieved 2021-03-31.
  46. ^ Baskin, Rachel; Hill, Briony; Jacka, Felice N.; O'Neil, Adrienne; Skouteris, Helen (2015). "The association between diet quality and mental health during the perinatal period. A systematic review". Appetite. 91: 41–47. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2015.03.017. ISSN 1095-8304. PMID 25814192. S2CID 15808804.
  47. ^ Opie, Rachelle S.; Uldrich, Alison C.; Ball, Kylie (2020-08-01). "Maternal Postpartum Diet and Postpartum Depression: A Systematic Review". Maternal and Child Health Journal. 24 (8): 966–978. doi:10.1007/s10995-020-02949-9. ISSN 1573-6628. PMID 32367245. S2CID 218484000.
  48. ^ "File:Nicotine.jpg", Wikipedia, retrieved 2021-04-15
  49. ^ Skinner, Janelle A; Garg, Manohar L; Dayas, Christopher V; Fenton, Sasha; Burrows, Tracy L (2018). "Relationship between dietary intake and behaviors with oxytocin: a systematic review of studies in adults". Nutrition Reviews. 76 (5): 303–331. doi:10.1093/nutrit/nux078. PMID 29534221.
  50. ^ CDC (2021-02-09). "Alcohol and Breastfeeding". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 2021-03-31.
  51. ^ Brown, R.A.; Dakkak, H.; Seabrook, J.A. (2018-12-21). "Is Breast Best? Examining the effects of alcohol and cannabis use during lactation". Journal of Neonatal-Perinatal Medicine. 11 (4): 345–356. doi:10.3233/npm-17125. ISSN 1934-5798. PMID 29843260. S2CID 44153511.
  52. ^ Römer, Pia; Mathes, Birgit; Reinelt, Tilman; Stoyanova, Polina; Petermann, Franz; Zierul, Claudia (2020-09-04). "Systematic review showed that low and moderate prenatal alcohol and nicotine exposure affected early child development". Acta Paediatrica. 109 (12): 2491–2501. doi:10.1111/apa.15453. ISSN 0803-5253. PMID 32603488.
  53. ^ CDC (2021-02-16). "Tobacco, E-Cigarettes and Breastfeeding". Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved 2021-03-31.
  54. ^ Paul, Catherine; Zénut, Marie; Dorut, Agnès; Coudoré, Marie-Ange; Vein, Julie; Cardot, Jean-Michel; Balayssac, David (2015-02-01). "Use of Domperidone as a Galactagogue Drug: A Systematic Review of the Benefit-Risk Ratio". Journal of Human Lactation. 31 (1): 57–63. doi:10.1177/0890334414561265. ISSN 0890-3344. PMID 25475074. S2CID 7978585.
  55. ^ Taylor, Alicia; Logan, Gabrielle; Twells, Laurie; Newhook, Leigh Anne (2019-08-01). "Human Milk Expression After Domperidone Treatment in Postpartum Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials". Journal of Human Lactation. 35 (3): 501–509. doi:10.1177/0890334418812069. ISSN 0890-3344. PMID 30481478. S2CID 53774334.
  56. ^ 錢, 穎儀 (2020). "淺談中醫催乳". embracehealth.org.hk (in Chinese). 香港浸會大學 - 賽馬會中醫疾病預防與健康管理中心. Retrieved 2021-03-31.
  57. ^ Keikha, Mojtaba; Bahreynian, Maryam; Saleki, Mohammad; Kelishadi, Roya (2017-09-07). "Macro- and Micronutrients of Human Milk Composition: Are They Related to Maternal Diet? A Comprehensive Systematic Review". Breastfeeding Medicine. 12 (9): 517–527. doi:10.1089/bfm.2017.0048. ISSN 1556-8253. PMID 28880568.
  58. ^ Anderson, Loretta; Kynoch, Kathryn; Kildea, Sue; Lee, Nigel (August 2019). "Effectiveness of breast massage for the treatment of women with breastfeeding problems: a systematic review". JBI Evidence Synthesis. 17 (8): 1668–1694. doi:10.11124/JBISRIR-2017-003932. ISSN 2689-8381. PMID 31135656. S2CID 167219284.
  59. ^ "File:Infant formula.jpg", Wikipedia, retrieved 2021-04-12
  60. ^ Department of General Surgery, London North West Healthcare NHS Trust, Northwick Park Hospital, Middlesex, Londan; Boakes, Eve; Woods, Amy; Department of Medicine, Croydon University Hospital, Croydon, London; Johnson, Natalie; Department of General Surgery, London North West Healthcare NHS Trust, Northwick Park Hospital, Middlesex, Londan; Kadoglou, Naim; Department of General Surgery, London North West Healthcare NHS Trust, Northwick Park Hospital, Middlesex, Londan (2018-06-29). "Breast Infection: A Review of Diagnosis and Management Practices" (PDF). European Journal of Breast Health. 14 (3): 136–143. doi:10.5152/ejbh.2018.3871. PMC 6092150. PMID 30123878.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Establishment_of_breastfeeding&oldid=1236498427"