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Energy policy

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For the academic journal, see Energy Policy (journal).
Example of energy policy decisions: The goal of the Southern Gas Corridor, which connects the giant Shah Deniz gas field in Azerbaijan to Europe, is to reduce Europe's dependency on Russian gas.

Energy policies are the government's strategies and decisions regarding the production, distribution, and consumption of energy within a specific jurisdiction. Energy is essential for the functioning of modern economies because they require energy for many sectors, such as industry, transport, agriculture, housing. The main components of energy policy include legislation, international treaties, energy subsidies and other public policy techniques.

The energy sector emits more greenhouse gas worldwide than any other sector.[1] Therefore, energy policies are closely related to climate policies. These decisions affect how high the greenhouse gas emissions by that country are.

Purposes

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Access to energy is critical for basic social needs, such as lighting, heating, cooking, and healthcare. Given the importance of energy, the price of energy has a direct effect on jobs, economic productivity, business competitiveness, and the cost of goods and services.

Frequently the dominant issue of energy policy is the risk of supply-demand mismatch (see: energy crisis). Current energy policies also address environmental issues (see: climate change), particularly challenging because of the need to reconcile global objectives and international rules with domestic needs and laws.[2]

The "human dimensions" of energy use are of increasing interest to business, utilities, and policymakers. Using the social sciences to gain insights into energy consumer behavior can help policymakers to make better decisions about broad-based climate and energy options.[3] This could facilitate more efficient energy use, renewable-energy commercialization, and carbon-emission reductions.[4]

Approaches

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See also: Sustainable energy § Government policies

The attributes of energy policy may include legislation, international treaties, incentives to investment, guidelines for energy conservation, taxation and other public policy techniques. Economic and energy modelling can be used by governmental or inter-governmental bodies as an advisory and analysis tool.

Energy planning is more detailed than energy policy.

National energy policy

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Some governments state an explicit energy policy. Others do not but in any case, each government practices some type of energy policy. A national energy policy comprises a set of measures involving that country's laws, treaties and agency directives.

There are a number of elements that are contained in a national energy policy. Some important elements intrinsic to an energy policy include:[5]

  • What is the extent of energy self-sufficiency for this nation
  • Where future energy sources will derive
  • How future energy will be consumed (e.g. among sectors)
  • What are the goals for future energy intensity, ratio of energy consumed to GDP
  • How can the national policy drive province, state and municipal functions
  • What specific mechanisms (e.g. taxes, incentives, manufacturing standards) are in place to implement the total policy
  • Do you want to develop and promote a plan for how to get the world to net zero emissions?
  • What fiscal policies related to energy products and services should be used (taxes, exemptions, subsidies, etc.)?
  • What legislation affecting energy use, such as efficiency standards, emission standards, is needed?

Relationship to other government policies

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Further information: climate change policy and environmental policy

Energy policy sometimes dominates and sometimes is dominated by other government policies. For example energy policy may dominate, supplying free coal to poor families and schools thus supporting social policy,[6] but thus causing air pollution and so impeding heath policy and environmental policy.[7]: 13  On the other hand energy policy may be dominated by defense policy, for example some counties started building expensive nuclear power plants to supply material for bombs.[8] Or defense policy may be dominated for a while, eventually resulting in stranded assets, such as Nord Stream 2.

Energy policy is closely related to climate change policy because totalled worldwide the energy sector emits more greenhouse gas than other sectors.[1]

Energy policy decisions are sometimes not taken democratically.[9]

Corporate energy policy

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In 2019, some companies “have committed to set climate targets across their operations and value chains aligned with limiting global temperature rise to 1.5°C above pre-industrial levels and reaching net-zero emissions by no later than 2050”.[10] Corporate power purchase agreements can kickstart renewable energy projects,[11] but the energy policies of some countries do not allow or discourage them.[12]

By type of energy

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Nuclear energy

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This section is an excerpt from Nuclear energy policy.[edit]

Nuclear energy policy is a national and international policy concerning some or all aspects of nuclear energy and the nuclear fuel cycle, such as uranium mining, ore concentration, conversion, enrichment for nuclear fuel, generating electricity by nuclear power, storing and reprocessing spent nuclear fuel, and disposal of radioactive waste. Nuclear energy policies often include the regulation of energy use and standards relating to the nuclear fuel cycle. Other measures include efficiency standards, safety regulations, emission standards, fiscal policies, and legislation on energy trading, transport of nuclear waste and contaminated materials, and their storage. Governments might subsidize nuclear energy and arrange international treaties and trade agreements about the import and export of nuclear technology, electricity, nuclear waste, and uranium.

Since about 2001 the term nuclear renaissance has been used to refer to a possible nuclear power industry revival, but nuclear electricity generation in 2012 was at its lowest level since 1999.[13] [14] Since then it had increased back to 2,653 TWh in 2021, a level last seen in 2006. The share of nuclear power in electricity production however is at a historic low and now below 10% down from a maximum of 17.5% in 1996.[15]

Following the March 2011 Fukushima I nuclear accidents, China, Germany, Switzerland, Israel, Malaysia, Thailand, United Kingdom, and the Philippines are reviewing their nuclear power programs. Indonesia and Vietnam still plan to build nuclear power plants.[16][17][18][19] Thirty-one countries operate nuclear power stations, and there are a considerable number of new reactors being built in China, South Korea, India, and Russia.[20] As of June 2011, countries such as Australia, Austria, Denmark, Greece, Ireland, Latvia, Lichtenstein, Luxembourg, Malta, Portugal, Israel, Malaysia, and Norway have no nuclear power stations and remain opposed to nuclear power.[21][22]

Since nuclear energy and nuclear weapons technologies are closely related, military aspirations can act as a factor in energy policy decisions. The fear of nuclear proliferation influences some international nuclear energy policies.

Renewable energy

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This section is an excerpt from Renewable energy commercialization § Public policy landscape.[edit]

Public policy has a role to play in renewable energy commercialization because the free market system has some fundamental limitations. As the Stern Review points out: "In a liberalised energy market, investors, operators and consumers should face the full cost of their decisions. But this is not the case in many economies or energy sectors. Many policies distort the market in favour of existing fossil fuel technologies."[23] The International Solar Energy Society has stated that "historical incentives for the conventional energy resources continue even today to bias markets by burying many of the real societal costs of their use".[24]

Fossil-fuel energy systems have different production, transmission, and end-use costs and characteristics than do renewable energy systems, and new promotional policies are needed to ensure that renewable systems develop as quickly and broadly as is socially desirable.[25] Lester Brown states that the market "does not incorporate the indirect costs of providing goods or services into prices, it does not value nature's services adequately, and it does not respect the sustainable-yield thresholds of natural systems".[26] It also favors the near term over the long term, thereby showing limited concern for future generations.[26] Tax and subsidy shifting can help overcome these problems,[27] though is also problematic to combine different international normative regimes regulating this issue.[28]

Examples

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China

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This section is an excerpt from Energy policy of China.[edit]
China is both the world's largest energy consumer and the largest industrial country, and ensuring adequate energy supply to sustain economic growth has been a core concern of the Chinese Government since the founding of the People's Republic of China in 1949.[29] Since the country's industrialization in the 1960s, China is currently the world's largest emitter of greenhouse gases, and coal in China is a major cause of global warming.[30] China is also the world's largest renewable energy producer (see this article), and the largest producer of hydroelectricity, solar power and wind power in the world. The energy policy of China is connected to its industrial policy, where the goals of China's industrial production dictate its energy demand managements.[31]   

India

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This section is an excerpt from Energy policy of India.[edit]

The energy policy of India is to increase the locally produced energy in India and reduce energy poverty,[32] with more focus on developing alternative sources of energy, particularly nuclear, solar and wind energy.[33][34] Net energy import dependency was 40.9% in 2021-22.[35] The primary energy consumption in India grew by 13.3% in FY2022-23 and is the third biggest with 6% global share after China and USA.[36][37][38] The total primary energy consumption from coal (452.2 Mtoe; 45.88%), crude oil (239.1 Mtoe; 29.55%), natural gas (49.9 Mtoe; 6.17%), nuclear energy (8.8 Mtoe; 1.09%), hydroelectricity (31.6 Mtoe; 3.91%) and renewable power (27.5 Mtoe; 3.40%) is 809.2 Mtoe (excluding traditional biomass use) in the calendar year 2018.[39] In 2018, India's net imports are nearly 205.3 million tons of crude oil and its products, 26.3 Mtoe of LNG and 141.7 Mtoe coal totaling to 373.3 Mtoe of primary energy which is equal to 46.13% of total primary energy consumption. India is largely dependent on fossil fuel imports to meet its energy demands – by 2030, India's dependence on energy imports is expected to exceed 53% of the country's total energy consumption.[40]

About 80% of India's electricity generation is from fossil fuels. India is surplus in electricity generation and also a marginal exporter of electricity in 2017.[41] Since the end of the calendar year 2015, huge power generation capacity has been idling for want of electricity demand.[42] India ranks second after China in renewables production with 208.7 Mtoe in 2016.[43] The carbon intensity in India was 0.29 kg of CO2 per kWhe in 2016 which is more than that of USA, China and EU.[44] The total manmade CO2 emissions from energy, process emissions, methane, and flaring is 2797.2 million tons of CO2 in CY2021 which is 7.2% of global emissions.[37] The energy intensity of agriculture sector is seven times less than industrial sector in 2022-23 (see Table 8.9[36])

Ecuador

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This section is an excerpt from Energy policy of Ecuador.[edit]
Energy policy in Ecuador is driven by its need for energy security as a developing country as well as its conservation efforts.[45] Despite past and ongoing attempts to take charge in energy sustainability (as with the now defunct Yasuni-ITT initiative), oil production and exportation still supports its small $5,853 GDP/capita economy at an average of 549,000 barrels/day in 2016.[46] The push and pull between energy independence/nationalism and appeasement of conservationist groups (representing the concerns of environmentalists and indigenous groups) has been evident in the country’s shifting stance on renewable energies and fossil fuels.[45]

European Union

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Russia was a key oil and gas supplier to Europe (map from 2013). This changed with the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022.
This section is an excerpt from Energy policy of the European Union.[edit]
The energy policy of the European Union focuses on energy security, sustainability, and integrating the energy markets of member states.[47] An increasingly important part of it is climate policy. [48] A key energy policy adopted in 2009 is the 20/20/20 objectives, binding for all EU Member States. The target involved increasing the share of renewable energy in its final energy use to 20%, reduce greenhouse gases by 20% and increase energy efficiency by 20%.[49] After this target was met, new targets for 2030 were set at a 55% reduction of greenhouse gas emissions by 2030 as part of the European Green Deal.[50][51] After the Russian invasion of Ukraine, the EU's energy policy turned more towards energy security in their REPowerEU policy package, which boosts both renewable deployment and fossil fuel infrastructure for alternative suppliers.[52]

Russia

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This section is an excerpt from Energy policy of Russia.[edit]
Russia's energy policy is presented in the government's Energy Strategy document, first approved in 2000, which sets out the government's policy to 2020 (later extended to 2030). The Energy Strategy outlines several key priorities: increased energy efficiency, reducing the impact on the environment, sustainable development, energy development and technological development, as well as improved effectiveness and competitiveness. Russia's greenhouse gas emissions are large because of its energy policy.[53] Russia is rich in natural energy resources and is one of the world's energy superpowers. Russia is the world's leading net energy exporter, and was a major supplier to the European Union until the Russian invasion of Ukraine. Russia has signed and ratified the Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement. Numerous scholars posit that Russia uses its energy exports as a foreign policy instrument towards other countries.[54][55]

United Kingdom

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This section is an excerpt from Energy policy of the United Kingdom.[edit]

The energy policy of the United Kingdom refers to the United Kingdom's efforts towards reducing energy intensity, reducing energy poverty, and maintaining energy supply reliability. The United Kingdom has had success in this, though energy intensity remains high. There is an ambitious goal to reduce carbon dioxide emissions in future years, but it is unclear whether the programmes in place are sufficient to achieve this objective.[citation needed] Regarding energy self-sufficiency, UK policy does not address this issue, other than to concede historic energy security is currently ceasing to exist (due to the decline of North Sea oil production).[citation needed]

The United Kingdom historically has a good policy record of encouraging public transport links with cities,[citation needed] despite encountering problems with high speed trains, which have the potential to reduce dramatically domestic and short-haul European flights. The policy does not, however, significantly encourage hybrid vehicle use or ethanol fuel use, options which represent viable short term means to moderate rising transport fuel consumption. Regarding renewable energy, the United Kingdom has goals for wind and tidal energy. The 2007 White Paper on Energy set a target that 20% of the UK's energy must come from renewable sources by 2020.

The current energy policy of the United Kingdom is the responsibility of the Department for Energy Security and Net Zero (DESNZ), after the Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy was split into the Department for Business and Trade and the Department for Science, Innovation and Technology in 2023. Energy markets are regulated by the Office of Gas and Electricity Markets (Ofgem).

Areas of focus for energy policy by the UK government have changed since the Electricity Act 1989 and the Gas Act 1986 privatised these utilities. The policy focuses of successive UK governments since the full liberalisation of gas and electricity markets in 1998 and 1999[56] have included managing energy prices, decarbonisation, the rollout of smart meters, and improving the energy efficiency of the country's building stock.

United States

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This section is an excerpt from Energy policy of the United States.[edit]

The energy policy of the United States is determined by federal, state, and local entities. It addresses issues of energy production, distribution, consumption, and modes of use, such as building codes, mileage standards, and commuting policies. Energy policy may be addressed via legislation, regulation, court decisions, public participation, and other techniques.

Federal energy policy acts were passed in 1974, 1992, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009,[57] 2020, 2021, and 2022, although energy-related policies have appeared in many other bills. State and local energy policies typically relate to efficiency standards and/or transportation.[58]

By country

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Energy policies vary by country, see tables below.

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b "Climate change – Topics". IEA. Retrieved 2022-06-04.
  2. ^ Farah, Paolo Davide; Rossi, Piercarlo (December 2, 2011). "National Energy Policies and Energy Security in the Context of Climate Change and Global Environmental Risks: A Theoretical Framework for Reconciling Domestic and International Law Through a Multiscalar and Multilevel Approach". European Energy and Environmental Law Review. 2 (6): 232–244. SSRN 1970698.
  3. ^ "Nudge • Nudging consumers towards energy efficiency through behavioural science". Nudge. Retrieved 2022-06-04.
  4. ^ Robert C. Armstrong, Catherine Wolfram, Robert Gross, Nathan S. Lewis, and M.V. Ramana et al., "The Frontiers of Energy", Nature Energy, Vol 1, 11 January 2016.
  5. ^ Hamilton, Michael S (2014). Energy Policy Analysis: A Conceptual Framework (0 ed.). Routledge. doi:10.4324/9781315704647. ISBN 978-1-317-47147-9.
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  7. ^ "Health and climate change: country profile 2022: Turkey - Turkey | ReliefWeb". reliefweb.int. Retrieved 2022-06-04.
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  10. ^ "87 Major Companies Lead the Way Towards a 1.5°C Future at UN Climate Action Summit". UNFCCC. 22 September 2019. Retrieved 11 May 2020.
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  12. ^ "PPA structures and parties involved around the world - DLA Piper Corporate PPAs". www.dlapiperintelligence.com. Retrieved 2022-06-01.
  13. ^ "Nuclear power down in 2012".
  14. ^ "The Nuclear Renaissance (by the World Nuclear Association)".
  15. ^ url=https://www.worldnuclearreport.org/IMG/pdf/wnisr2022-v3-lr.pdf
  16. ^ Jo Chandler (March 19, 2011). "Is this the end of the nuclear revival?". The Sydney Morning Herald.
  17. ^ Aubrey Belford (March 17, 2011). "Indonesia to Continue Plans for Nuclear Power". New York Times.
  18. ^ Israel Prime Minister Netanyahu: Japan situation has "caused me to reconsider" nuclear power Piers Morgan on CNN, published 2011-03-17, accessed 2011-03-17
  19. ^ Israeli PM cancels plan to build nuclear plant xinhuanet.com, published 2011-03-18, accessed 2011-03-17
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  21. ^ "Nuclear power: When the steam clears". The Economist. March 24, 2011.
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  24. ^ Donald W. Aitken. Transitioning to a Renewable Energy Future, International Solar Energy Society, January 2010, p. 4.
  25. ^ Delucchi, Mark A. and Mark Z. Jacobson (2010). "Providing all Global Energy with Wind, Water, and Solar Power, Part II: Reliability, System and Transmission Costs, and Policies" (PDF). Energy Policy.
  26. ^ a b Brown, L.R. (2006). Plan B 2.0 Rescuing a Planet Under Stress and a Civilization in Trouble Archived 11 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine W.W. Norton & Co, pp. 228–232.
  27. ^ Brown, L.R. (2006). Plan B 2.0 Rescuing a Planet Under Stress and a Civilization in Trouble Archived 11 July 2007 at the Wayback Machine W.W. Norton & Co, pp. 234–235.
  28. ^ Farah, Paolo Davide; Cima, Elena (2013). "Energy Trade and the WTO: Implications for Renewable Energy and the OPEC Cartel". Journal of International Economic Law (JIEL), Georgetown University Law Center. 4. SSRN 2330416.
  29. ^ Andrews-Speed, Philip (November 2014). "China's Energy Policymaking Processes and Their Consequences". The National Bureau of Asian Research Energy Security Report. Retrieved December 5, 2014.
  30. ^ McGrath, Matt (2019-11-20). "China coal surge threatens Paris climate targets". Retrieved 2019-12-09.
  31. ^ Rosen, Daniel; Houser, Trevor (May 2007). "China Energy A Guide for the Perplexed" (PDF). piie.com. Retrieved 25 April 2020.
  32. ^ "India Energy Outlook 2021 – Analysis". IEA. Retrieved 2022-01-15.
  33. ^ "India 2nd biggest driver of global energy consumption in 2019: BP Statistical Review". Retrieved 18 June 2020.
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  35. ^ "Energy statistics 2023" (PDF). CSO, GoI. Retrieved 23 March 2023.
  36. ^ a b "Energy Statistics_India 2024" (PDF). Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation, India. Retrieved 16 March 2024.
  37. ^ a b "BP Statistical Review of World Energy, 2022" (PDF). Retrieved 30 July 2022.
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  39. ^ "BP Statistical Review 2019" (PDF). Retrieved 15 June 2019.
  40. ^ Yep, Eric (9 March 2011). "India's Widening Energy Deficit". Archived from the original on 28 December 2011.
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  42. ^ "India won't need extra power plants for next three years – Says government report". The Economic Times. Retrieved 13 January 2016.
  43. ^ "India – country energy profile, IEA". Archived from the original on 1 September 2020. Retrieved 13 January 2017.
  44. ^ Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max (11 May 2020). "India: CO2 Country Profile". Our World in Data. Retrieved 27 April 2021.
  45. ^ a b Escribano, Gonzalo (2013-06-01). "Ecuador's energy policy mix: Development versus conservation and nationalism with Chinese loans". Energy Policy. 57 (Supplement C): 152–159. doi:10.1016/j.enpol.2013.01.022. Archived from the original on 2019-11-02. Retrieved 2019-10-12.
  46. ^ "OPEC : Ecuador". www.opec.org. Archived from the original on 2020-03-06. Retrieved 2017-10-10.
  47. ^ Ciucci, Matteo (September 2022). "Energy policy: general principles | Fact Sheets on the European Union". European Parliament. Retrieved 2023-04-01.
  48. ^ Rayner, Tim; Szulecki, Kacper; Jordan, Andrew J.; Oberthür, Sebastian (2023). "Handbook on European Union Climate Change Policy and Politics (open access)". Retrieved 20 July 2023.
  49. ^ Obrecht, Matevz; Denac, Matjaz (2013). "A sustainable energy policy for Slovenia : considering the potential of renewables and investment costs". Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy. 5 (3): 032301. doi:10.1063/1.4811283.
  50. ^ "EU achieves 20-20-20 climate targets, 55 % emissions cut by 2030 reachable with more efforts and policies". European Environmental Agency. 9 February 2023. Retrieved 2023-04-02.
  51. ^ Higham, Catherine; Setzer, Joana; Narulla, Harj; Bradeen, Emily (March 2023). Climate change law in Europe: What do new EU climate laws mean for the courts? (PDF) (Report). Grantham Research Institute on Climate Change and the Environment. p. 3. Retrieved 2 April 2023.
  52. ^ Goodman, Joe (2022-05-20). "In-depth Q&A: How the EU plans to end its reliance on Russian fossil fuels". Carbon Brief. Retrieved 2023-04-02.
  53. ^ "Russian Federation". climateactiontracker.org. Retrieved 2022-05-01.
  54. ^ Baran, Z. (2007). EU Energy Security: Time to End Russian Leverage. The Washington Quarterly, 30(4), 131–144.
  55. ^ Orttung, Robert W.; Overland, Indra (January 2011). "A Limited Toolbox: Explaining the Constraints on Russia's Foreign Energy Policy". Journal of Eurasian Studies. 2 (1): 74–85. doi:10.1016/j.euras.2010.10.006. ISSN 1879-3665. S2CID 154079894.
  56. ^ Pearson, Peter; Watson, Jim (2012). UK Energy Policy 1980–2020 (PDF) (Report). Institute for Engineering and Technology (ICT) and Parliamentary Group for Energy Studies. Retrieved 2020-10-21.
  57. ^ "Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (Enrolled as Agreed to or Passed by Both House and Senate)". Archived from the original on January 15, 2016. Retrieved 2008-01-18.
  58. ^ "Database of State Incentives for Renewables & Efficiency". Dsireusa.org. Retrieved 2012-03-30.
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