Draft:Rise in female muscularity

Rise in Female Muscularity

The rise in female muscularity is reshaping societal standards of physical attractiveness, shifting the focus from thinness to strength . As physical attractiveness ideals are closely linked to body image and eating behaviours, they significantly impact psychological wellbeing . Despite its increasing prevalence, female muscularity remains under-researched. This article aims to address this gap by exploring the trend, its driving factors like strength training, bodybuilding, and protein intake, while addressing barriers such as generational and cultural differences, societal resistance, and psychological implications like body image and eating behaviours.

Historical Thin Ideals

To understand the rise in female muscularity, it's essential to consider traditional beauty standards, which have emphasised extreme thinness and minimal muscularity, as shown by analysing body ideals in the media . These thin ideals, often linked to body dissatisfaction and disordered eating , are now shifting toward muscularity.

Drivers for Emerging Muscular Ideals

As an emerging trend, limited literature exists, but available research, such as experiments rating Miss USA winners' attractiveness shows muscularity’s growing role in female physical attractiveness. The researcher in this study, used image manipulation of female models to allow direct comparison of perceptions of muscularity and thinness, minimising confounding variables. Additionally, figure rating scale research indicates both men and women prefer muscular female physiques . However, this approach oversimplifies body preferences by overlooking the complex cultural, social, and individual factors that influence these judgments. This highlights the need for further research to explore the underlying reasons behind such preferences. Despite the lack of conclusive causation, exploring driving factors like the rise of strength training, bodybuilding, and protein intake can offer a more comprehensive understanding of the increasing popularity of female muscularity.

Strength Training

The increasing participation of women in strength training has led to more positive perceptions of muscularity . This trend is reflected in rising female gym memberships and the growing presence of women in the free weights section, areas traditionally dominated by men . Qualitative interviews with 12 female powerlifters report a shift in focus from thinness to muscularity, with many participants mentioning improvements in body image and self confidence through strength training . This finding can be attributed to social media dismissing fears about weightlifting causing bulkiness, promoting its benefits for achieving toned physiques. Research has shown that parasocial relationships with fitness influencers positively influence exercise intentions, further supporting this trend . However, studies with small sample sizes, such as the 12 powerlifters, limit generalisability, as they may not capture the diverse range of experiences among women in strength training. Larger, more representative studies are needed to fully understand the factors driving this shift.

Bodybuilding

Kathy Segal in 1987 winning Ms International Champion.

While strength training emphasises the benefits of achieving a feminine toned physique, bodybuilding holds more extreme muscular ideals that are central to aesthetic and competitive goals. Over the years, female participation in bodybuilding has drastically increased . A study analysing journal entries, field observations and informal conversations with female bodybuilders over 18 months found there is an increasing visibility of women in bodybuilding. Furthermore, many women reported using performance-enhancing drugs to achieve a highly muscular physique. This reflects a shift from traditional thin ideals to prioritising muscularity. In addition, another study interviewing female bodybuilders highlighted the growing trend of female steroid use . However, these studies have important public health implications, particularly in addressing risky behaviours like steroid use, which can accompany the pursuit of extreme physiques. This demonstrates the need for increased education about the risks of performance enhancing drugs and the development of interventions to support safe and sustainable bodybuilding practices for extreme physiques. With the growing number of women striving for muscular ideals, tackling these challenges is crucial to support their fitness goals in a way that prioritises health and well-being.

Protein Intake

To support the rise of muscular female ideals and enhance muscle growth, many women now rely on high-protein diets to optimise their strength training and bodybuilding results. Research has increasingly highlighted proteins role in promoting muscle growth , leading to the media emphasising the importance of protein consumption. A study found that young women increasingly consume protein at levels optimal for muscle growth . The study also noted that when these women combined high-protein diets with resistance training, they maximised their muscle development. Similar trends were found in research showing women consuming higher protein diets tend to have lower body fat and increased lean body mass. . This shift reflects a broader societal move towards more muscular ideals for women, with increasing recognition that adequate protein intake is essential for enhancing strength and body composition. However, these two studies rely on food diaries, as a self-report method, which are susceptible to inaccuracies, particularly from underreporting or misreporting due to reliance on participants’ memory and estimation. Future research should utilise more objective and precise methods of dietary assessment, this could include biomarkers to validate protein intake or direct observational methods.

Barriers to Broader Acceptance

Generational Differences

While the rise in female muscularity is gaining momentum, it faces significant barriers to broader acceptance. A key challenge is the generational divide in embracing muscular ideals. Younger generations are more accepting of female muscularity, while older populations remain less engaged with these evolving standards . Additionally, research supporting the rise of muscularity often focuses on younger women, creating a gap in understanding how older women view muscular ideals. For example, the mean age of participants in Kelly et al.'s (2023) study was 19 years. Focusing exclusively on younger participants overlooks how older women, especially those 40 and above, view these trends.

In contrast, studies that have included older participants reveal a preference for thinness. A global study of body ideals found that older women (aged 40-80) still leaned towards thinness over muscularity . Similarly, Smeuninx et al.'s (2020) study found that older adults had lower protein intake and were less likely to engage in strength training compared to younger adults , indicating that a muscular physique is not a priority for older women. These findings suggest that while muscularity is increasingly embraced by younger generations, older women may still hold on to traditional beauty ideals. However, it is important to note that these studies may generalise age-related preferences across broad age ranges, especially classifying older women as 40-80 years, potentially overlooking more nuanced differences within those groups. While this approach provides a broad overview, future research should aim to capture the diversity of perspectives within subgroups of older populations to offer a more detailed understanding of how muscular body ideals, are valued across generations.

Cross Cultural Differences

The generational differences are further complicated by cultural influences, which shapes how beauty ideals are internalised across different age groups. Much of the research on the rise of female muscularity has been conducted in Western cultures , which may limit the generalisability of findings to non-Western populations. For example, Bozsik (2018) focused on a small group of undergraduate women in the United States, specifically examining Miss USA winners, which may not represent broader societal trends. This concentration on Western samples leaves significant gaps in understanding how non-Western cultures perceive and engage with the trend of female muscularity, suggesting the need for more diverse perspectives in future research.

However, Hanson et al. (2024) conducted a study across six countries, including both western and non-western cultures, and found thinness remains prevalent in non-Western societies, often reinforced through media and advertising. However, the study also found that body appreciation in Western and non-Western societies is influenced by Western beauty standards, with little variation in beauty ideals between these regions. This shows little global diversity in beauty standards and could also indicate that non-Western countries have been slower to adopt emerging trends. Furthermore, the limited research available in non-Western contexts may contribute to the perception that these countries have not fully adopted the muscularity trend, indicating a need for more research in these regions.

Societal Resistance

Despite the growing trend of female muscularity, societal resistance remains significant. Research links muscular female bodies with masculinity and unattractiveness . Female powerlifters, for example, report facing judgement for their muscular physiques, which are seen as incompatible with traditional notions of femineity . In addition, Nicola (2022) found women in bodybuilding experience stigma due to muscularity disobeying gender norms. The study also highlights how societal acceptance varies depending on the extent of muscularity, with extreme muscularity less socially accepted. Furthermore, older generations’ preference for thinness, shaped by traditional ideals, reinforces resistance to muscularity, reflecting ingrained cultural norms that equate femininity with slimness . This suggests that societal acceptance of female muscularity is limited, with women facing stigma for having muscular bodies.

However, some findings have shown no resistance to muscular female ideals. Bozsik (2018) suggests that muscularity, when paired with thinness, is increasingly seen as attractive, reflecting partial acceptance within conventional norms. Nicola (2022) also highlights strong support for muscularity within fitness communities, signalling growing subcultural acceptance.

Moreover, many studies predominantly focus on niche groups, such as competitive bodybuilders or powerlifters , which limits the applicability of findings to women seeking moderate muscularity for aesthetic or health reasons. This narrow representation overlooks the broader spectrum of women engaging with muscular ideals in diverse ways, who may face varying levels of social resistance. Including participants from various fitness levels could provide a more comprehensive understanding of societal attitudes and experiences related to female muscularity.

Psychological Implications

Body Image

Research has shown this rise in female muscularity has positively influenced body image for many women through challenging traditional beauty norms . Kelly et al. (2023) demonstrated how female powerlifters gained body confidence by valuing strength over appearance, fostering a sense of self-acceptance. Additionally, Nicola (2022) found female bodybuilders felt proud of their muscular physiques despite social stigma. While these studies highlight a link between muscularity and improved body image, they do not explore the underlying factors contributing to these positive changes. More research is needed to identify what specifically enhances body image and how external societal reactions influence these perceptions over time.

In addition, research also reveals that female athletes reported feeling body dissatisfaction due to the pressure to conform to muscular ideals in sports . This indicates that promoting muscularity as an ideal may not resolve body image concerns. The study’s use of systematic review and meta-analysis provides a thorough synthesis of existing research, integrating data from multiple studies to offer a comprehensive understanding. However, it is important to consider that the complexity of body image issues which are often shaped by societal pressures and comparisons, suggesting that the focus should shift beyond individual ideals of thinness or muscularity to consider the broader social influences contributing to dissatisfaction.

Eating Behaviours

These psychological perceptions of body image can translate to behavioural changes in eating habits. For instance, engaging in strength training and adopting muscular ideals can positively influence eating behaviours , where female powerlifters reported shifting from restrictive diets to more balanced eating habits that support performance and health. This suggests that the focus on muscle development may encourage a healthier relationship with food by prioritising nourishment over appearance. Furthermore, research found that greater muscularity was linked to increased protein intake, which can have beneficial effects on overall health and contribute to a well-rounded diet . Together, these studies suggest muscular ideals encourage healthier eating patterns.

However, other research highlights how bodybuilding culture sometimes leads to rigid, extreme dietary regimens, which can be counterproductive for overall well-being . Therefore, while muscular ideals may encourage more structured eating, the potential for extremism highlights the importance of balancing performance goals with general health principles. This presents a contradiction between the benefits of muscularity in promoting healthier eating and the risks of extreme dietary behaviour. Further research could explore how to maintain this balance while minimising harmful dietary extremes.

In conclusion, the shift toward muscularity as a beauty standard signal evolving societal values, yet it is accompanied by generational and cultural resistance, as well as potential psychological implications. Inclusive research is essential to understand how these ideals affect diverse populations, ensuring that emerging standards promote health and empowerment.