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Draft:Putting green

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  • Comment: This page Putting green name already exists. I do not think your draft needs to be separate article. RangersRus (talk) 01:45, 16 December 2024 (UTC)
A putting green on the 12th hole in Ridgefield, Connecticut

In golf, the putting green, or simply the green, is an area specifically prepared for putting. On a golf course, the green is defined as an open space of smooth turf at the end of the fairway containing the hole. The green is distinguishable by its level surface and smoothest possible texture, manageable by greenskeepers often through methods of mowing or rolling. Contrary to the to the courser rough surrounding the bounds of the fairway, the green contains short-cut grass ideal for the play of a stroke of the eponymous "putter" club. In the rules of golf, the dimensions and distance of a putting green vary and often constitutes the determination of par through the length of each hole from the teeing ground to the green. The placement of adjacent hazards positioned near slopes or ridges along the putting area contributes to the use "reading" to determine the degree of influence of the terrain on the green while putting.

Small-scale "putting courses", such as that used in miniature golf, use artificial surfaces as course greens exclusively for putting. In links, the usage of "double greens", sharing the same surface of the green for two separate holes, can seen in course such as St Andrews in Scotland; "dual greens" in Japan uses two separate putting greens for a single hole, enabling its usage throughout country's alternating climate.[1] In Scottish links, the term 'fairgreen', was initially used in reference to the modern 'fairway', particularly for similar turf quality to the modern putting green.[2] Since their initial development in golf during the early 18th century, the usage of irrigation systems and horticultural practices distinguishes the green's conservation from its adjacent course sections on account of the area's significance for course play. In continuity with par, particular deviations in the architecture of putting greens contributes to the difficulty of the course; the variation in putting greens produces much of the strategies used in putting.

History and evolution

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Prior to its development, the quality of the putting green was not distinct from the rest of the golf course.[3] Between the 18th and 19th century, the area around the hole was commonly referred to as 'hole green' or 'table-land' and contained turf corresponding with the fairway and tee ground. The term 'fair green' appears throughout Scotland the 17th century in reference to the smoothest extent of the golf course, often made from unmaintained linksland.[4] By the mid-19th century, the concept of separating the hole and tee ground for a longer course range required the designation of a particular area in the course for putting. The first records of a putting green appear in 1812 without a precise definition.[5]

The '1815 Aberdeen code' specified the area as "being within 15 yards (13.71m) of the hole"[5]; St. Andrews Club rules clarified as "being within 20 yards (18.28 m)".[5] The first records of an employed greenskeeper to maintain the condition of the putting green, or 'fairgreen' as it was called, was a receipt of payment to a boy in 1744 for 24 shillings per year by the Royal Burgess Golfing Society.[6] By the mid- to late 1800s, Greens-keeping was established as an official profession, as golfers sought to play on a higher quality 'green' turf rather than unpreserved linkslands. In 1863, Old Tom Morris was hired to St. Andrews from the Prestwick Club. His duties were explained in A History of the Royal and Ancient Golf Club, St. Andrews 1754–1900 by H.S.C. Everard:

"His duties were explained to him: to keep the putting greens in good order, to repair, where necessary, and to make the holes. For heavy work, carting, &c., he was to be allowed assistance at the rate of one man’s labour for two days in the week, and it was understood that he was to work under the Green Committee. Emblems of office were then handed over to him— to wit, a barrow, a spade, and a shovel—in prophetic instinct, belike, that “saund,” and ever “mair saund, Honeyman,” would be in future ages the watchword of the newly-appointed Chief of the Links."[7]

Considered a founder of the modern virtues of the putting green,[8] Morris initially discovered the functions of putting surfaces after allegedly spilling wheelbarrow of sand on a green.[8] After noticing the subsequent nourishment of the turf, Morris began applying the benefits of fertilization, lime, sulfates, and compost for the innovation of turf-grass on putting greens.[9] Additionally, Morris utilized irrigation and basic drainage systems used in common agricultural practices to improve the standards for putting in links courses.

The rolling of greens had already been a common practice in greens-keeping during the 19th century, however A. H. Pearson of the Notts Golf Club stressed the value using good clean seed for over-seeding and the effects of green rolling on soil compaction.[10] The Royal & Ancient Golf Club of St Andrews amended the definition of a course green to be "the area 20 yards of the hole" in 1882.[11] By 1952, the modern definition of a putting green was delineated as "an area specially prepared for putting". First introduced to the United States in 1888, a reference to a 'green' or 'greens-keeping' in golf does not appear until the early 20th century.[10]

Scottish brought linksland courses became fairly successful in the temperate climate and sandy soil found mostly along the New England region. However, in unsuitable areas for the conditions of linksland turf, innovation in turf grasses began a new emphasis on golf course quality, particularly through the use of grassland science or agrostology.[12] The first documented works on greens and greens-keeping in the United States occurred in 1897 by H. J. Whigham, a Scottish writer and amateur golfer. His book How to Play Golf, among the first golf books in published in the United States,[13] offered many insights on the standard of golf greens during its early formative years.

On the notion of obtaining the finest conditions, his excerpts included “...must your putting greens be flawless,”.[14] His further remarks included the use of varying sizes, yet argued that greens should "have a radius of less than 40 feet" and "have a water supply available at each green".[15] In Europe, English golfer, Horace Hutchinson, wrote his piece on The Book of Golf and Golfers in London in 1898,[16] including a chapter on “Laying-out and Up-keep of Greens,” co-written by representatives of the Sutton Seeds company. The chapter was among the early recommendations on the particular seed verity, or “golf grasses,” used on greens, composed of fescues, meadow grass, and dwarf perennial rye grass on sandy or chalk soils.[17]

Description

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Outline

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Putting green
The green seen from the ''rough'' and the fairway, known as the 'gateway'

Although the United States Golf Association (USGA) does not mandate any particular dimensions for putting greens, the determination of green sizes is largely based on the degree of playability in accordance to the value of par.[18] The USGA Slope Rating system measures the difficulty of putting greens on account of the Course Rating System through the analysis of surface contours and speed impacts.[19] Heavy contours and fast green speeds receive a higher obstacle value compared to more leveled putting greens facilitating uniform ball speeds.[20] Putting green speed in accordance to the Course Rating is determined through the use of a stimpmeter to measure ball roll distance over varying contour speeds.[19] Faster contours are given a higher obstacle value compared to moderate contours and influences the determination of par on a course and a player's handicap. The putting green is located at the farthest end of a hole on a golf course.[21]

It is among the of the five defined areas of a course where the hole is located and a flag-stick is placed. The players approach (or approach shots) from the fairway or in the 'rough', are intended to land onto the green, particularly through the usage of a chip or a pitch shot obtained by high lofted clubs.[22] The approach is typically aimed at a relatively short distance where its degree of accuracy and distance to the hole dictates the strategy for putting.

10th hole at the Ballybunion Golf Club

Horace Hutchinson was among the first to reference the approach shot in his work, Badminton Golf, in 1890, stating: "'An approach shot' means a stroke played with the intention of heaving the ball, which is as yet not on the putting-green, certainly on the putting-green, and possibly somewhere near the hole".[23] While putting, the 'approach putt', is a longer ranged stroke largely aimed at positioning the ball the closer to the hole rather than directly into it. Findlay S. Douglas first made reference to this in his 1901 piece, The Outing, siting: "With the general improvement of putting greens and their increase in size, the wooden putter will be found an excellent club for approach-putts".[23] On a standard par 72 course, roughly 36 shots are made on the green 18 are intended to land on the green, constituting about three-quarters of the total strokes made on a course.[24] The term 'gateway' is commonly used to reference the area of the fairway leading to the green upon approach.[25] The gateway is typically the area of the green containing its downslope or hazard, wherein a 'lay up' stroke is taken from the fairway and intended to reach before the hazard rather than onto the green. In order to putt, the ball must lie within the boundaries of the putting green. An artificial object, such as a coin or a pin, is often used on the green as a 'ball marker' to mark and lift the ball where it laid; the removal of resulting spike marks and loose soil caused by the impact of the approach shot may be appropriately mended as etiquette.[26]

Putting green at the Royal Golf club du Bercuit

There are traditionally three divisions of a putting green that are often made distinct while putting. The collar of the putting green, synonymously known as the fringe (colloquially known as "frogs hair"), is the area of the putting green that is defined by its taller grass height that encircles the smoother turf of the green. The collar is typically thought of as a transition or "buffer" between the putting green and the rough. Although not all putting greens will have collars, instead, a ringing bunker a ringing bunker may be placed for the fringe, requiring additional strategy during the lay up of the approach. Secondly, the apron of the green is often used in interchangeably with the collar or fringe.

Design

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The design and construction of putting greens is often under the advisory of the golf course superintendent and course architect.[27] Putting greens are the area of the golf course that are typically the most closely mowed and maintained in order to facilitate ideal putting under local conditions. The specifications of green cavities and subgrade are often the first step in the design of the putting green and conforms to the general slope of the finished grade.[28] USGA construction recommendations include the establishment of the subgrade approximately 16 inches (400 mm) below the surface grade and should be thoroughly compacted to avoid water collecting depressions.[29] Putting green cavity walls are recommended to be situated 90° to the cavity floor or steeply sloped in order to prevent inequities in depth of the rootzone mixture in the green perimeter.[30] In order to conform with the requirements of the USGA putting green construction recommendations, ample subsurface drainage systems are required for proper irrigation standards.[31][32]

A putting green covered by snow, known as the "white" in snow golf, in Jämijärvi, Finland.

Putting green drainage pipes are traditionally installed laterally along lines of maximum fall with clean out ports situated on the main drainage lines upstream and downstream from the green. Local and federal ordinance regarding adequate water disposal significantly dictates the design of these drainage systems in order remove excess water from the green.[33] USGA putting green's often include the usage of drainage pipes at least 6 inches (150 mm) wide, 8 inches (200 mm) deep through subsoil maintaining the slope of the outlet.

A layer of gravel is then used as the intermediate layer above the drainage to install the barrier around the green. The gravel layer is then spread to a minimum depth of 4 inches in order to conform with the final surface of the putting green.[34] USGA standards endorsed the usage of sand- based fertilizers and Rooztone mixtures. Quartz sands, a particle defined between 0.05 and 2 mm in diameter, are applied in mixtures for their silicon dioxide (SiO2) contents rendering its chemical decomposition resistant to change over time.[35]

The usage of thatch surfaces is often employed for putting greens in order to retain soil compaction.[36] Sand particles are often interspersed as topdressing over green surfaces in order to support drainage and nutrient retention. The soil maturation process for putting greens takes several years in temperate climates, such as the Northeast region, due to factors of growing seasons, cultivar, or accessibility to adequate irrigation.[37] Areas of unfavorable weather are often avoided for the construction of greens to prevent the deterioration of putting green quality from induced stress. The measured 'firmness' of a putting green surface largely constitutes the difficulty of the given Slope Rating when firmer- or 'softer-than-norma' conditions are observed.[38]

Ecology

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Common varieties of grass used in putting greens include Bermuda, Bentgrass, Fescue, Zoysia, Poa annua, and Rye grass.[39] Putting greens are notable for their uniform color that is often segregated from the rest of the golf course from its individual biotypes and grass cultivar. Bermuda grass is widely used in greens for its warm temperature climate and drought tolerance, typically successful in the Southern United States and South Africa.[40] Conversely, the cool-season Bentgrass is often successful in the Northeastern regions, particular during the spring or fall, as it underperforms in warmer areas and requires excess irrigation in rising temperatures.[41] Bentgrass in putting greens during the summer appears to brown and contain a softer texture compared to its colder condition.[42] Links course greens typically contain the slow growing Fescue grass for its high water capacity, requiring less frequent mowing, and providing a firmer surface for putting conditions.

Zoysia, a warm-season grass, is notable for its cold climate tolerance and adequate water capacity.[43] Zoysia's limited irrigation demands and grain composition allows it to remain firmer during cooler periods of the spring or fall. Consequently, extended periods of low-temperature weather renders Zoysia grasses susceptible to the overgrowth of Rhizoctonia solani, attacking basal portions of zoysiagrass leafs and producing "small reddish-brown" or black lesions.[44] Zoysia turfs containing R. solani may consequently suffer from blight, effecting much of the plants leaves, stem, and tillers, as up to 85 to 90 percent of the effected area of the turf will begin to "thin". The disease typically subsides with the onset of the warmer temperatures of the spring season.

See also

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References

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Citations

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  1. ^ USGA 2023, p. 1.
  2. ^ Scottish Golf History, p. 1.
  3. ^ Locke & para. 1.
  4. ^ Wiley, p. 1.
  5. ^ a b c Locke & para 2.
  6. ^ Wiley, p. 3.
  7. ^ Wiley, p. 5.
  8. ^ a b Wiley, p. 7.
  9. ^ Oatis 2010, p. 1.
  10. ^ a b Wiley, p. 8.
  11. ^ Locke & (n.d.), p. 3.
  12. ^ Wiley, p. 10.
  13. ^ Wiley, p. 13.
  14. ^ Wiley, p. 14.
  15. ^ Whingham 1897, p. 29.
  16. ^ USGA, pp. 5–90.
  17. ^ Wiley, p. 15.
  18. ^ Bruaer, p. 1.
  19. ^ a b Moeler, p. 2.
  20. ^ Lemons, pp. 1–2.
  21. ^ Watson, p. 1.
  22. ^ Davies 2005, pp. 20–28.
  23. ^ a b Davies 2005, p. 13.
  24. ^ Pira, p. 317.
  25. ^ Davies 2005, p. 74.
  26. ^ USGA, p. 1.
  27. ^ Oatis, p. 1.
  28. ^ USGA, p. 2.
  29. ^ Hurdzan 2004, pp. 5–16.
  30. ^ White, pp. 5–11.
  31. ^ USGA, p. 3.
  32. ^ Wieko 2006, p. 101.
  33. ^ USGA, p. 4.
  34. ^ White, p. 23.
  35. ^ USGA, p. 8.
  36. ^ Oatis, p. 2.
  37. ^ Oatis, p. 3.
  38. ^ Moeller, p. 3.
  39. ^ Sens, pp. 1–6.
  40. ^ Duble, pp. 1–4.
  41. ^ Wieko 2006, p. 106.
  42. ^ Oatis, p. 4.
  43. ^ Bavier & Witteveen, p. 3-40.
  44. ^ Watschke, Dernoeden & Shetlar, p. 115.

Sources

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  • Davies, Peter (January 1, 2005). The Historical Dictionary of Golfing Terms: From 1500 to the Present. University of Nebraska Press (published 2005). pp. 13–74. ISBN 0803266545.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  • Hurdzan, Michael J. (Jul 2, 2004). Golf Greens: History, Design, and Construction. Wiley. pp. 5–17. ISBN 0471459453.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  • White, Charles B. (January 15, 2000). Turf Managers' Handbook for Golf Course Construction, Renovation, and Grow-In (in 639-2). Wiley. ISBN 1575041103
  • United States Golf Association. (1921). The Bulletin of the United States Golf Association, Green Section, Volumes 1-3. Pennsylvania State University
  • Witteveen, Gordon, Bavier, Michael. (October 18, 2012). Practical Golf Course Maintenance: The Magic of Greenkeeping. Wiley. ISBN 1118411919
  • "Topic - Putting Green". usga.org. USGA. 2023. pp. 1–12.
Wiecko, Greg (January 1, 2006). Fundamentals of Tropical Turf Management. CAB International. pp. 7–118. ISBN 1845930304.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
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