Draft:Medieval Africa

Medieval Africa covers African history from around 1250 to 1800.

North Africa

Northern Africa

c. 1250-1500

In 1248, the Christians began the Seventh Crusade with intent to conquer Egypt, but were decisively defeated by the embattled Ayyubids who had relied on Mamluk generals in the face of Mongol expansion. The Ayyubid sultan attempted to alienate the victorious Mamluks, who revolted, killing him and seizing power in Egypt, with rule given to a military caste of Mamluks headed by the Bahri dynasty, whilst the remaining Ayyubid empire was destroyed in the Mongol invasions of the Levant. Following the Mongol Siege of Baghdad in 1258, the Mamluks re-established the Abbasid Caliphate in Cairo, and over the next few decades conquered the Crusader states and, assisted by civil war in the Mongol Empire, defeated the Mongols, before consolidating their rule over the Levant and Syria. To the west, the three dynasties vied for supremacy and control of the trans-Saharan trade. Following the collapse of the Abbasids, the Hafsids were briefly recognised as caliphs by the sharifs of Mecca and the Mamluks. Throughout the 14th century, the Marinids intermittently occupied the Zayyanids several times, and devastated the Hafsids in 1347 and 1357. The Marinids then succumbed to internal division, exacerbated by plague and financial crisis, culminating in the rise of the Wattasid dynasty from Zenata in 1472, with the Hafsids becoming the dominant power. Throughout the 15th century, the Spanish colonised the Canary Isles in the first example of modern settler colonialism, causing the genocide of the native Berber population in the process. To the east, the turn of the 15th century saw the Mamluks oppose the expansionist Ottomans and Timurids in the Middle East, with plague and famine eroding Mamlukian authority, until internal conflict was reconciled. The following decades saw the Mamluks reach their greatest extent with efficacious economic reforms, however the threat of the growing Ottomans and Portuguese trading practices in the Indian Ocean posed great challenges to the empire at the turn of the 16th century.

East Africa

Horn of Africa

c. 1250-1500

In 1270, supported by the Kebra Nagast painting the Zagwe as illegitimate usurpers, Yekuno Amlak rebelled with assistance from Shewa and defeated the Zagwe king in battle, establishing the Solomonic dynasty of the nascent Ethiopian Empire. In accordance with the Kebra Negast, they claimed their descent from the last king of Aksum, and ultimately from Aksumite queen Makeda and the Israelite king Solomon. Fifteen years later, in the Sultanate of Shewa, which was exhausted following wars with Damot and suffering internal strife, was conquered by Umar Walasma of the Walashma dynasty, who established the Sultanate of Ifat. Over the following decades Ifat incorporated the polities of Adal, Gidaya, Bale, Mora, Hargaya, Hubat, and Fatagar among others. In the 13th century the Afar founded the Dankali Sultanate north of Ethiopia. In Ethiopia Amda Seyon I came to the throne in 1314 and conquered Harla, Gojjam, Hadiya, and crucially Damot, with Ennarea splitting from the latter. He also campaigned in the north where Beta Israel had been gaining prominence, and reconquered the Tigrayan Enderta Province. In 1321, a religious dispute between Amda Seyon and the Mamluk sultan which involved threats to tamper with the Nile gave Ifat's Haqq ad-Din I pretext to invade and execute an Ethiopian envoy. Seven years later, Amda Seyon's forces overwhelmed Ifat's outposts, defeated Ifat's armies and killed Haqq ad-Din, with lack of unity among the Muslims proving fatal. The Ethiopian emperor raided the Muslim states and made them tributaries. Following this, sultan Sabr ad-Din I led a rebellion and jihad in 1332 seeking to restore prestige and rule a Muslim Ethiopia, garnering widespread support in the early stages from the Muslim states and even from nomads. They were defeated by Amda Seyon, ushering in a golden age for the Ethiopian Empire. Ethiopia incorporated Ifat, Hadiya, Dawaro, Fatagar, and Shewa as one vassal headed by the Walashma dynasty. The Ethiopian emperor ruled the Muslim states by divide and rule, and had the final say on succession, with various sultans and sheikhs drawn to his court. Successive sultans rebelled and struggled to shake off Ethiopian vassalage, moving Ifat's capital to Adal in an attempt to escape Ethiopia's sphere of control. To the south-west according to oral traditions, Amda Seyon expanded into the Gurage. According to oral traditions, the Kingdom of Kaffa was established in 1390 after "ousting a dynasty of 32 kings". In the late 14th century the sultans began to expand eastwards into the decentralised Somali interior. Sa'ad ad-Din II propagated insecurity on Ethiopia's eastern frontier, however was defeated by Dawit I. The sultan was repeatedly pursued by the Ethiopian emperor to Zeila on the coast and killed in 1415, leaving the former Sultanate of Ifat fully occupied.

In 1415 Sabr ad-Din III of the Walashma dynasty returned to the region from exile to establish the Adal Sultanate. The Ethiopian armies were defeated, and he and his successors expanded to regain the territory of the former sultanate. Jamal ad-Din II's reign saw a sharp rise in the slave trade, with India, Arabia, Hormuz, Hejaz, Egypt, Syria, Greece, Iraq, and Persia reportedly becoming "full of Abyssinian slaves". In 1445 Badlay attempted an invasion into the Ethiopian Highlands, supported by Mogadishu, however he was defeated by Zara Yaqob, with the successor sultan securing peace between the two states. In the 1440s Ethiopia conquered much of the Tigray, placing the land under a vassal ruled by the Bahr Negus. Baeda Maryam I campaigned against the Dobe'a with the support of Dankalia, resulting in their defeat and incorporation into the empire. In 1471, a Harari emir leading a militant faction seized power in Adal with the sultan retaining a ceremonious role. His successor raided the Ethiopian frontier against the sultan's wishes, and was defeated by the emperors in 1507 and finally in 1517. For the Ethiopians, the end of the 15th century saw a period of conquest and expansion come to close, and one of defence begin.

Swahili coast, Madagsacar, and the Comoro Islands

c. 1250-1500

Kilwa had grown by the 15th century to encompass Mombasa, Malindi, Inhambane, Zanzibar, Mafia, Grande Comore, and Mozambique. They first made contact with Portuguese explorers in 1497.

West Africa

The western Sahel and Sudan

c. 1250-1500

Sundiata passed in 1255 and his son conquered Gajaaga and Takrur, and brought the key Saharan trading centres under his rule. The cessation of his reign culminated in a destructive civil war, only reconciled with a militaristic coup, after which Gao was conquered and the Tuareg subdued, cementing Mali's dominance over the trans-Saharan trade. In the 13th century Al-Hajj Salim Suwari, a Soninke Islamic scholar, pioneered the Suwarian tradition which sought to tolerate traditional religions, gaining popularity among West African Muslims. In 1312 Mansa Musa came to power in Mali after his predecessor had set out on an Atlantic voyage. Musa supposedly spent much of his early campaign preparing for his infamous hajj or pilgrimage to Mecca. Between 1324 and 1325 his entourage of over 10,000, and hundreds of camels, all carrying around 12 tonnes of gold in total, travelled 2700 miles, giving gifts to the poor along the way, and fostered good relations with the Mamluk sultan, garnering widespread attention in the Muslim world. On Musa's return, his general reasserted dominance over Gao and he commissioned a large construction program, building mosques and madrasas, with Timbuktu becoming a centre for trade and Islamic scholarship, however Musa features comparatively less than his predecessors in Mandinka oral traditions than in modern histories. Despite Mali's fame being attributed to its riches in gold, Mali's prosperous economy was based on arable and pastoral farming, as well as crafts, and they traded commonly with the Akan, Dyula, and with Benin, Ife, and Nri in the forest regions. To the east, the Kano king converted to Islam in 1349 after da'wah (invitation) from some Soninke Wangara, and later absorbed Rano.

Amid a Malian mansa's attempt to coerce the empire back into financial shape after the lacklustre premiership of his predecessor, Mali's northwestern-most province broke away to form the Jolof Empire and the Serer kingdoms. Wolof tradition holds that the empire was founded by the wise Ndiadiane Ndiaye, and it later absorbed neighbouring kingdoms to form a confederacy of the Wolof kingdoms of Jolof, Cayor, Baol, and Waalo, and the Serer kingdoms of Sine and Saloum. In Mali after the death of Musa II in 1387, vicious conflict ensued within the Keita dynasty. In the 1390s Yatenga sacked and raided the southern trading city of Macina in Mali. The internal conflict weakened Mali's central authority. This provided an opportunity for the previously subdued Tuareg tribal confederations in the Sahara to rebel. Over the next few decades they captured the main trading cities of Timbuktu, Oualata, Nema, and possibly Gao, with some tribes forming the northeastern Sultanate of Agadez, and with them all usurping Mali's dominance over the trans-Saharan trade. In the 15th century, the Portuguese, following the development of the caravel, set up trading posts along the Atlantic coast, with Mali establishing formal commercial relations, and the Spanish soon following. In the early 15th century Diarra escaped Malian rule. Previously under Malian suzerainty and under pressure from the expansionist Jolof Empire, a Fula chief migrated to Futa Toro, founding Futa Kingui in the lands of Diarra circa 1450. Yatenga capitalised on Mali's decline and conquered Macina, and the old province of Wagadu. Meanwhile Gao, ruled by the Sonni dynasty, expanded, conquering Mema from Mali, in a struggle over the crumbling empire.

Central Africa

The Congo Basin

c.1250-1500

By the 13th century there were three main confederations of states in the western Congo Basin around Pool Malebo. The Seven Kingdoms of Kongo dia Nlaza, considered to be the oldest and most powerful, likely included Nsundi, Mbata, Mpangu, and possibly Kundi and Okanga. South of these was Mpemba which stretched from its capital in northern Angola 200km north to the Congo River. It included various kingdoms such as Mpemba Kasi, its northernmost and remotest component, and Vunda. To its west across the Congo River was a confederation of three small states; Vungu (its leader), Kakongo, and Ngoyo.

The formation of the Kingdom of Kongo began in the late 13th century. Kongo oral traditions hold that Ntinu Wene (lit. "King of the Kingdom") crossed the Congo River from Vungu to conquer Mpemba Kasi, known as the "Mother of Kongo". The first kings ruled from Nsi a Kwilu, a valley and old religious centre, which produced iron and steel, and linked the copper and textile-producing north to the south. Around the 1350s Nimi Nzima established an alliance with the rulers of Mbata, who were looking to break away from the Seven Kingdoms, and agreed to secure each other's dynasties, making them known as the "Grandfather of Kongo". Tradition holds that Nimi Nzima's son, Lukeni lua Nimi, wishing to aggrandise himself, built a fortress and blocked and taxed commerce. One day his pregnant aunt refused to pay the toll, and in a rage he killed her. While reprehensible, it displayed his determination and valour. This won him followers and allowed him to embark on conquests. To the south the market town of Mpangala, itself a sub unit of Vunda, was absorbed, with Vunda also styled as a Grandfather. This weakening of Mpemba precipitated its conquest and integration into the Kingdom of Kongo. Lukeni lua Nimi also conquered Kabunga in the west, whose leaders were regional religious leaders, not dissimilar from popes. From there Soyo and Mbamba were conquered. The power and resources gained from these conquests allowed Kongo to expand north into Nsundi, which had multiple sub-units. Traditionally, a governor on Nsundi's western border forbode entry until they had fought a symbolic battle. Kongo conquered Nsundi and delegated it to a royal governor, who greatly expanded the territory, conquering Nsanga and Masinga. Northeast, Teke oral tradition holds that Mabiala Mantsi united the Bateke tribes, centralised his governance, and expanded using militaristic and diplomatic skill. Kongo's conquests eastward brought it into conflict with the formidable Teke Kingdom which halted their expansion. This expansion had primarily been done by allying and co-opting polities. By the late 15th century, Kongo had developed a new administrative system which would increase its centralisation, and after integrating Vunda, they set about conquering these polities and converting them into royal provinces.

Small confederations, like Kisama, often put up spirited and successful resistance to either internal consolidation by aggressive components, or external conquest and integration. To the south around the highlands of Angola the Ambundu kingdoms of Ndongo and Matamba formed. The Dembos confederation sat between them and Kongo. Ndongo had come under tributary status to Kongo by the 16th century, and oral traditions collected in the 17th century hold their founder, Ngola Mussuri or Bumbambula, to be a blacksmith who came there from Kongo, and was elected king (Ngola) due to his benevolence.

To its east around Lake Mai-Ndombe, there emerged Mwene Muji, likely around 1400. Their 'empire' status is pending on further archaeological research. With a powerful riverine navy, they expanded along the Kasai, Lukenie, Kamtsha, Kwilu, and Wamba rivers, without venturing much into the interior, coming to dominate trade.

Further southeast in the Upemba Depression, "Lords of the land" held priestly roles due to their special relationship with the spirits of the land and were widely recognised, holding sway over multiple villages and essentially ruling embryonic kingdoms. As lineages grew in size, authority was opportunistically incorporated diplomatically or by force, leading to the formation of states. Most of those of the southern savanna, such as the Luba-Katanga and Songye, eventually transitioned from being matrilineal to patrilineal. An early state formed between the Lualaba and Lomami rivers among the Luba-Katanga, known as the Kingdom of Luba. Their oral traditions account their people's history and hold their founder, Nkongolo, as a conqueror (mukalanga).

In the late 15th century, Kongo came into contact with the Portuguese. A Kongo delegation was invited to Lisbon in 1487, and relations were initially warm. A Portuguese priest mastered Kikongo and his input led to the baptism of Kongo's king and royal court. At the same time commercial relations developed. Trade in slaves was the most lucrative.