Draft:History of Aerial Archaeology

• Comment: Aerial archaeology is pretty short. Couldn't we just incorporate this directly into that article? – Joe (talk) 14:06, 25 October 2024 (UTC)

Perhaps that will be best. I will work on moving over what I've written and incorporating it into the 'History' section of Aerial archaeology. TruthInEvidence (talk) 15:53, 15 November 2024 (UTC)

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Aerial archaeology, the study of archaeological sites and landscapes from the air, has evolved into a vital tool for archaeologists, enabling the discovery of features invisible from the ground. This method, which has been developed over more than a century, has allowed researchers to uncover previously hidden landscapes, settlements, and monuments. The use of aerial perspectives has transformed archaeological research, providing a broad, non-invasive view of historical landscapes.

Early Developments

Late-19th and Early-20th Century Observations

The origins of aerial photography, which led to the rise of aerial archaeology, began in the mid-19th century with early experiments in capturing landscapes from above. The French photographer Nadar (Gaspard-Félix Tournachon), who is credited with taking the first aerial photograph from a balloon in 1858 over the outskirts of Paris​. In America, a man named James Wallace Black, in 1860, became the first person to successfully take aerial photographs from a hot air balloon over Boston. Around the same time, Thaddeus Lowe, a scientist and aeronaut, also used balloons for military reconnaissance during the American Civil War​.

In 1888, Arthur Batut, a French inventor, became the first person to use a kite to take an aerial photograph over Labruguière, France. Batut's innovative technique allowed for a more stable platform than a balloon, providing clearer images of landscapes. His experiments were a precursor to the widespread use of kite photography for topographic surveys​.

A decade later, Giacomo Boni, an Italian archaeologist, used an innovative method of stratigraphic excavation in his study of the Roman Forum. Boni combined this with collaborations with geologists and aerial photographs taken from a balloon in 1899.

Two technological advances in the 19th century constituted significant leaps forward in aerial photography: The first was George Eastman's first Kodak camera, which had a fixed focal lens and a shutter speed of around 1/25 of a second. With the right lighting conditions, this all but eliminated the challenges of capturing clear images from kites and balloons. The second was the development of the halftone process that accelerated the production of printed photographs.

In the early 20th century, other pioneers continued to push the boundaries of aerial photography. George R. Lawrence, an American photographer, used large kites and a panoramic camera to capture sweeping views of landscapes. One of his most famous images is a panoramic shot of San Francisco after the 1906 earthquake​. Around the same time, Julius Neubronner, a German inventor, used pigeons equipped with small cameras to take aerial photographs, demonstrating the potential for lightweight, portable aerial devices​​.

In the years leading up to the First World War, several early attempts were made to use aerial photography for archaeological purposes, though they often faced significant technical and practical challenges. One of the earliest figures involved in this effort was Sir Henry Wellcome, a British-American pharmaceutical entrepreneur and philanthropist. In the early 1900s, Wellcome financed several archaeological expeditions in Sudan, where he employed aerial photography using a box kite to document excavations in Jebel Moya, Sudan.

World War I and the Birth of Aerial Archaeology

The outbreak of World War I marked a critical turning point in the development of aerial archaeology. British and Belgian air forces pioneered the use of aerial photography for reconnaissance as early as 1914, marking the beginning of a systematic approach to aerial observations​. Aerial photography advanced rapidly due to its essential role in military reconnaissance. Both the Allies and Central Powers relied heavily on aerial photographs to map enemy positions and monitor battlefield activity. It was during this time that aerial photography techniques improved dramatically, particularly in terms of camera technology, altitude, and film quality​. The use of specialized reconnaissance aircraft, which were equipped with advanced cameras, allowed for the collection of high-resolution images on a scale and precision previously unattainable​.

Although aerial photography during the war was primarily a military tool, its application to archaeology was soon recognized. The thousands of aerial photographs captured over Europe revealed previously unknown archaeological features, such as crop marks, that were visible from the air but invisible from the ground. These images, primarily intended for military strategy, revealed unexpected archaeological features, especially in Europe​. This discovery highlighted the potential of aerial photography not just for military purposes but also for archaeological discovery and documentation​.

After the war, many of the techniques and technologies developed during the conflict were adopted by archaeologists. Figures like O.G.S. Crawford in Britain were instrumental in applying wartime advances to peacetime archaeological research. Crawford's systematic use of aerial photography in the 1920s marked the beginning of modern aerial archaeology, building on the foundations laid by earlier pioneers and the technological leaps made during the war​.

O.G.S. Crawford and the Systematic Use of Aerial Photography

In the 1920s, Osbert Guy Stanhope Crawford emerged as a key figure in the development of aerial archaeology. Crawford recognized the potential of aerial photography for systematically documenting archaeological sites. His work in Britain and the Middle East demonstrated that aerial surveys could reveal features such as crop marks and soil disturbances that were undetectable from ground level​. His pioneering efforts helped establish aerial archaeology as a legitimate and essential method within the broader field of archaeological research​.

Major G. W. G. Allen was an English engineer who, after learning of the work Crawford was doing, he was inspired to use his own airplane around Southern England, taking photographs of the landscape. His work in documenting prehistoric landscapes and Roman roads in England marked a significant advancement in the application of aerial methods for archaeological surveys​.

Post-War Expansion

Technological Advances

Following the Second World War, advancements in aerial photography and imaging techniques significantly broadened the scope of aerial archaeology. The introduction of infrared photography and multispectral imaging enabled archaeologists to detect subtle variations in vegetation and soil, allowing for the identification of buried structures that would otherwise remain hidden​. These technological innovations made it possible to conduct more detailed and accurate surveys, further enhancing the effectiveness of aerial archaeology​.

Global Expansion of Aerial Archaeology

In the post-war period, aerial archaeology expanded beyond Europe, becoming an invaluable tool for researchers working in regions with vast and difficult-to-access landscapes, such as the Americas, Africa, and Asia. In these areas, aerial surveys uncovered ancient civilizations and revealed the locations of significant archaeological sites, many of which had been previously unknown​. The ability to survey large areas quickly and efficiently made aerial archaeology a critical tool for understanding diverse archaeological landscapes across the globe​.

Modern Aerial Archaeology

Drones and UAVs

In recent years, the advent of drones, or unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), has revolutionized aerial archaeology. Drones offer greater flexibility and lower operational costs compared to traditional manned aircraft. With the ability to capture high-resolution images and access areas that are otherwise difficult to reach, drones have become an essential tool for modern archaeological surveys​. The increased use of drones has made aerial archaeology more accessible to a broader range of researchers and has led to more frequent and detailed studies of archaeological landscapes​.

LiDAR and Photogrammetry

Technological advancements such as LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) and photogrammetry have further enhanced aerial archaeology. LiDAR, in particular, is capable of penetrating dense vegetation to reveal features hidden beneath forest canopies, making it an invaluable tool for studying heavily forested regions​. Photogrammetry, which allows for the creation of precise 3D models of archaeological sites, has enabled researchers to document and analyze sites with unprecedented accuracy​. Together, these technologies have expanded the potential of aerial archaeology, allowing for more detailed and comprehensive analyses of archaeological sites​.

Contributions and Impact

Aerial archaeology has made significant contributions to the field of archaeology, providing a unique perspective that complements traditional ground-based methods. Some of the key contributions include:

Revealing hidden landscapes: Aerial photography has uncovered ancient settlements, road networks, and field systems that were invisible from the ground​.

Providing a broader context: Aerial surveys allow archaeologists to study sites within their larger landscape, revealing patterns and connections that would be difficult to discern from ground level​.

Protecting archaeological heritage: Aerial archaeology has played a crucial role in identifying and monitoring threatened archaeological sites, contributing to their preservation​​.

Future Directions

The future of aerial archaeology is likely to be shaped by continued advancements in technology. Key developments include:

Increased use of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning: These technologies hold the potential to automate the analysis of aerial imagery, improving the speed and accuracy of identifying archaeological features​.

Integration with other technologies: Combining aerial archaeology with techniques such as ground-penetrating radar and geophysical surveys will provide a more comprehensive understanding of archaeological sites​.

Expansion into new environments: Aerial archaeology is expected to extend into more challenging environments, including urban areas and underwater landscapes, offering new insights into previously inaccessible or difficult-to-study locations​​.

Sources:

Addison, Frank. Jebel Moya (Text). Vol. 1. Published for the Trustees of the late Sir Henry Wellcome by the Oxford University Press, 1949.

Brophy, Kenneth, and David Crowley. From the Air: Understanding Aerial Archaeology. Gloucestershire: Tempus Publishing Limited, 2005.

Cantoro, Gianluca. Aerial Reconnaissance in Archaeology: From Archives to Digital Photogrammetry. Archaeopress, 2015.

Crawford, O.G.S. Said and Done: The Autobiography of an Archaeologist. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1955.

Deuel, Leo. Flights into Yesterday: The Story of Aerial Archaeology. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1969.

Hauser, Kitty. Bloody Old Britain: O.G.S. Crawford and the Archaeology of Modern Life. London, 2008.

Kennedy, David, and Robert Bewley. "Aerial archaeology in Jordan." Antiquity 83, no. 319 (2009): 69+. Gale General OneFile (accessed October 24, 2024). https://link.gale.com/apps/doc/A196908139/ITOF?u=txshrpub100185&sid=bookmark-ITOF&xid=e09b54d9.

Musson, Chris, Rog Palmer, and Stefano Campana. Flights into the Past: Aerial Photography, Photo Interpretation and Mapping for Archaeology. Aerial Archaeology Research Group, 2013.

Stichelbaut, Birger. "The Application of First World War Aerial Photography to Archaeology: The Belgian Images." Antiquity, 2006.

Wickstead, Helen, and Martyn Barber. A Spectacular History of Survey by Flying Machine. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 2012.