The Greek-Ottoman conflict (Greek: Ελληνική-Οθωμανική σύγκρουση), was the conflict and rivalry fought between the Kingdom of Greece and the Ottoman Empire, starting from 21 February 1821 to 10 August 1920, lasting around 99 years and 5 months. It consisted of five wars and around thirteen Greek revolts against the Ottoman Empire, after the Greek War of Independence.

Background

Greek-Ottoman conflict
	Part of Ottoman wars in Europe
	; Greek machine gun team in the Asia minor campaign
Date	1821-1920
Location	Balkans, Aegean sea, Crete, Anatolia
Result	Initial Ottoman victory; Suppression of many Greek revolts by the Ottoman Empire.The Ottoman Empire defeats Greece at the Greco-Turkish War (1897) Eventual Greek victory; Destruction and partition of the Ottoman Empire.Treaty of Sevres results in the surrender of the Ottoman Empire.
Territorial; changes	Ottomans lose forever, Crete, Macedonia, Epirus, Eastern thrace and most of the Aegean
Belligerents
Greek Revolutionaries First Hellenic Republic Kingdom of Greece Maniots Kingdom of France(1826-1833) Russian Empire(1826-1829,1853-1856,1914-1918) Pontic Greeks France United Kingdom (1826-1832,1917-1920) Kingdom of Serbia Tsardom of Bulgaria (1912-1913)	Ottoman empire . Pashalik of Scutari(1821-1823) Ottoman Egypt(1825-1833) League of Prizren(1881 only) Albanian volunteers Tripolitania Regency of Algiers

After the Fall of Constantinople on 29 May 1453, the Byzantine Empire got abolished and the Ottomans started rapidly expanding and conquering the Balkan Peninsula. By 1460, the Ottoman Empire conquered the last Byzantine territory in Mainland Greece known as the Despotate of Morea. Later Mehmed II of the Ottoman Empire, conquered the last rump state of the Byzantine Empire,at the Siege of Trebizond (1461), completely marking the end of Byzantine sovereignty thus starting the period known as Ottoman Greece (Called Tourkokratia by the Greeks) . Greeks in the Ottoman Empire were known as Romans (Rhomaioi) and called Rayah by the Ottoman Turks during Ottoman Greece. Since the Greeks were Rayah they should pay to the owner of the land a tithe of one-third of the acorns they collect from land that is not their own. But if it's land owned by the Rayah, one-tenth should be collected.

The Orthodox Church emerged as the foundation of Greek identity during the Ottoman period, preserving the Greek language, traditions, and Orthodox Christianity. The Ottomans, recognizing the Church's influence, gifted the Ecumenical Patriarchate in Constantinople authority over the Christian population, allowing it to operate with a degree of autonomy. The Church became the protector of the Greek people, safeguarding their cultural heritage in the face of foreign rule.

the Greek population faced heavy taxation under the Ottoman system.The devshirme system, where Christian boys were taken to serve as Janissaries or in the Ottoman administration, was a constant source of anguish. Nevertheless, some Greeks managed to thrive, in regions like the Mani Peninsula, where Ottoman control was weaker, local Greeks enjoyed a higher degree of economic independence and autonomy. Education under Ottoman rule was largely preserved by the Orthodox Church, which operated schools to ensure the continuation of Greek language and Orthodox faith. The curriculum in these schools included religious instruction as well as Greek history and language, helping to maintain Greek identity. In addition, secret schools, known as in greek (Κρυφα σχολεια), were reportedly established to educate Greek children away from Ottoman eyes.

Revolts before the Greek War of Independence

Naousa uprising (1705)

The Naousa uprising in Western Macedonia was the Greek uprising in Naousa commanded by the Greek Armatolos Zisis Karademos.At 1705 a commissar of the Ottoman Sultan named Ahmet Çelebi came to Naousa to select fifty male children for the devşirme conscription, to be raised as Janissaries. His arrival started a revolt in the town led by Zisis Karademos. Ahmet Çelebi and his entourage were slain. Karademos and about one hundred of his followers were subsequently attacked by a Turkish force led by the Bolukbashi Recep Aga near the river Arapitsa in the vicinity of Naousa. The rebels retreated towards the top of Mt Vermion and fled when Zisis Karademos was killed, putting down the rebellion.

Orlov revolt

the Orlov revolt occured in the middle of the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774) by the arrival of the admiral Alexey Orlov commanded by Panagiotis Benakis, Daskalogiannis and the father of Theodoros koloktronis, Konstantinos koloktronis against the Turkish and Albanian forces of the Pashalik of Scutari. The revolt, led by Count Orlov, aimed to free Greece by starting a rebellion. Due to lack of support and bad coordination, the revolt quickly failed, leading to harsh Ottoman suppression against the Greek population.

Ottoman invasion of Mani (1770)

Greek War of Independence

The Greek War of Independence (1821-1832) was a struggle in which the Greeks sought to break free from nearly four centuries of Ottoman rule. The revolution was sparked by a growing sense of national identity, fueled by Enlightenment ideas and the influence of successful revolutions in America and France. The war began in March 1821, with uprisings in the Peloponnese and Wallachia.

Initially, the Greek forces, composed of irregular bands of fighters, managed to secure significant victories, capturing several key towns. However, internal divisions and the superior resources of the Ottoman Empire led to a period of setbacks for the Greeks. The intervention of the Egyptian army under Ibrahim Pasha in 1825 brought the Greeks to the brink of collapse.

The tide turned in favor of the Greeks with the decisive intervention of Britain, France, and Russia, who, motivated by both strategic interests and public sympathy for the Greek cause, formed an alliance against the Ottomans. The turning point came with the Battle of Navarino in 1827, where the allied fleets destroyed the Ottoman-Egyptian fleet. This victory, combined with continued Greek resistance, led to international recognition of Greek independence.

The war officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Constantinople in 1832, establishing Greece as an independent kingdom, though the new state was much smaller than the territory sought by the revolutionaries. The Greek War of Independence marked the emergence of a modern Greek state and inspired nationalist movements across Europe.

Conflict

After the Greek War of Independence, there were many conflicts yet to come with the Greeks and Turks. The Greeks got lesser territories than what they expected after the Treaty of Constantinople, leading to a sense of dissatisfaction and unresolved tensions. This dissatisfaction fueled further nationalist movements within Greece, ultimately contributing to the complex and often hostile relations between the two nations. The quest for the so-called 'Megali Idea,' or the vision of a Greater Greece, persisted, influencing Greek foreign policy and leading to future conflicts, including the Balkan Wars and the Greco-Turkish War of 1919-1922. These struggles would continue to shape the geopoliticalgion well into the 20th century.

Cretan Revolt (1841)

The Cretan Revolt of 1841 was one of several uprisings against Ottoman rule in Crete during the 19th century. It was sparked by growing dissatisfaction among the Cretans over the harsh Ottoman administration and the lack of promised reforms. Despite the Treaty of London in 1832, which had promised autonomy for Crete under the rule of the Greek Kingdom, the island remained under Ottoman control.

The 1841 revolt was marked by localized uprisings, particularly in the Sfakia region, where resistance was strongest. However, the revolt lacked widespread support and was quickly suppressed by the Ottomans. The failure of the revolt led to increased tensions between the Cretan population and the Ottoman authorities, setting the stage for future uprisings. The Cretan resistance continued to play a significant role in the broader Greek struggle for independence throughout the 19th century.

Epirus revolt of 1854

The Epirus Revolt of 1854 was a significant uprising in the region of Epirus, driven by Greek nationalists inspired by the broader context of the Crimean War. Led by figures like Spyridon Karaiskakis, the revolt aimed to liberate Epirus from Ottoman rule and unite it with Greece. Despite initial successes, including the capture of Arta, the revolt was ultimately crushed by Ottoman forces with the support of their French and British allies.

1854 Macedonian rebellion

The Macedonian Rebellion of 1854 was a significant yet unsuccessful uprising against the Ottoman Empire, driven by Greek nationalistic goals and regional dissatisfaction. The revolt was largely inspired by the recent Greek War of Independence and to liberate Macedonia from Ottoman rule and incorporate it into the Greek state. Key figures in this rebellion included Greek revolutionaries and local leaders who rallied the population to resist Ottoman control. However, the rebellion faced substantial challenges, particularly from the Great Powers, such as France and Britain, who opposed any disturbances in the region due to their own geopolitical interests. Despite the initial enthusiasm, the rebellion was brutally suppressed by the Ottoman forces, leading to widespread suffering among the Macedonian population. Nonetheless, the 1854 rebellion was an important precursor to later nationalist movements in the region, which continued to struggle for independence from Ottoman rule.

Cretan revolt (1866-1869)

The Cretan Revolt of 1866–1869 was a significant uprising against Ottoman rule, driven by the island's desire for union with Greece. The revolt began as Cretans, dissatisfied with Ottoman governance and inspired by the broader Greek nationalist movement, took up arms. The conflict was marked by brutal clashes, including the infamous destruction of the Arkadi Monastery, which drew international attention. European powers, particularly Britain and France, debated intervention, but their efforts primarily focused on diplomatic pressure rather than direct involvement, eventually leading to a temporary settlement.

1867 Macedonian rebellion

The 1867 Macedonian Rebellion was part of a broader series of uprisings against the Ottoman Empire. In response to heavy taxation and repression, local Greek populations, particularly in the regions of Veroia and Naousa, sought to assert their autonomy. They were inspired by the ongoing Cretan Revolt and the revolutionary activities across the Balkans. Despite initial successes, the rebellion was ultimately suppressed by the Ottoman forces, with significant repercussions for the local population. These uprisings foreshadowed the intensifying national struggles that would continue into the later 19th century.

1878 Macedonian rebellion

The 1878 Macedonian Rebellion was a significant Greek uprising against the Ottoman Empire, inspired by the broader revolutionary fervor following the Russo-Turkish War. Centered in regions like Mount Olympus and western Macedonia, the revolt aimed to resist the territorial provisions of the Treaty of San Stefano, which favored Bulgarian expansion at the expense of Greek claims. Despite early successes, the rebellion was brutally suppressed by Ottoman forces. The aftermath saw continued tensions and set the stage for further nationalist movements in the Balkans.

1878 Cretan revolt

The Cretan Revolt of 1878 was another significant uprising against Ottoman rule, driven by the island's enduring desire for union with Greece. This revolt was part of a series of insurrections that were fueled by the broader nationalist movements across the Greek territories and the changing geopolitical landscape following the Russo-Turkish War. Despite initial successes, including widespread support from local populations, the revolt ended with the signing of the Pact of Halepa, which granted Crete greater autonomy but fell short of full independence.

1878 Epirus revolt

The Epirus Revolt of 1878 was a significant uprising against Ottoman rule, driven by the desire of the local Greek population to unify with the Kingdom of Greece. Taking place during a time of heightened nationalist sentiment following the Russo-Turkish War, the revolt was marked by a series of clashes between the Greek insurgents and Ottoman forces. The Epirotes sought to leverage the international attention on the Eastern Question to achieve their goals, although the revolt ultimately failed to achieve union with Greece. The movement, however, emphasized the persistent tensions in the region and the determination of the Epirotes to resist Ottoman rule.

1878 Thessalian revolt

The Thessalian Rebellion of 1878 was a significant event in the broader context of Greek nationalist uprisings against the Ottoman Empire, particularly during the period of the Russo-Turkish War (1877-1878). The rebellion was driven by the desire of the Thessalian Greeks to achieve enosis (union) with the Kingdom of Greece. The Greek government, although reluctant to officially intervene due to diplomatic pressures from the Great Powers, supported irregular forces and military operations in the region.

The rebels managed to gain some early successes, including the Battle of Mouzaki, where Greek forces briefly overcame the Ottoman troops. However, despite these efforts, the rebellion was ultimately suppressed. The lack of sustained support from the Greek state and the intervention of the Great Powers, who sought to maintain the status quo in the region, led to the rebellion's failure.

1896-1897 Macedonian rebellion

The 1896–1897 Macedonian Rebellion was part of a broader wave of unrest in the late 19th century as Greek nationalists sought to liberate and unify Greek-speaking populations under Ottoman rule. This rebellion, though ultimately unsuccessful, was driven by the wider "Megali Idea," the irredentist ambition to incorporate all Greek-speaking lands into a single state. The insurgents aimed to spark a general uprising in Macedonia, hoping to draw international attention and gain support for Greek territorial claims.

Despite some early successes, the rebellion was met with overwhelming Ottoman military responses. The Ottomans, increasingly concerned about the growing nationalist movements within their empire, deployed significant forces to quell the uprising. The failure of this rebellion did not immediately alter the region's political landscape but added to the ongoing tensions between Greece and the Ottoman Empire, setting the stage for future conflicts, including the Greco-Turkish War of 1897.