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Draft:Disinformation research

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Disinformation research or misinformation research, is an academic discipline that examines areas related to the spread, impact, and potential solutions to disinformation and misleading information, which includes phenomena like fake news, conspiracy theories, and echo chambers.[1][2] Research on this field provides evidence-based research on the impact of false or misleading information on users the causes of misinformation, how it spreads through offline and online media, why people are susceptible to it, and successful strategies for mitigating its impact.[3][4]

Disinformation research draws from multiple academic traditions, including the political communication,[5] media studies, health research,[6] marketing research,[7] journalism, cybersecurity, and military science.[8] Multiple universities[9][10] as well as think tanks.[11][12] now have research centers dedicated to disinformation research.

Origin

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Rapid growth of disinformation research as an academic field[2]

The study of disinformation as a field of academic research can be traced to information science, specifically to research into the epistemology of deception and misleading information. The academic field consolidated through the emergence of the fake news phenomenon and its seeming capacity to interfere in the 2016 US presidential election.[13]

On 2020, the field of disinformation research gained momentum through the COVID-19 misinformation, including vaccine hesitancy, the use of face masks, and speculation over the origin of the COVID-19 pandemic, leading to research into how to counter the infodemic.[14]

Dedicated scholarly journals have been created in the field like the Misinformation Review at Harvard.[15]

Research

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Disinformation research in political communication

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Disinformation in political communication refers to the deliberate use of deception to influence political outcomes and conduct election interefence.[16] Political actors, such as governments and political parties, often use disinformation as a strategic tool to discredit opponents, for instance using deepfakes to create false scandals, or to manufacture the illusion of public support, for instance, via astroturfing. Social media amplifies political reach and allow the use of dark money to influence candidates. The consequences include increased political polarization and culture wars.[17]

Disinformation research in media studies

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Circulation and amplification of disinformation on social media echo chambers[18]

Disinformation in media studies examines the use and abuse of media systems through media manipulation, and internet manipulation.[19] Research in the field focuses on its impact on journalism, for instance via fact checking, and its effects on the audience. Disinformation research in journalism highlights the challenges disinformation poses to its ethics and standards, such as maintaining credibility of news sources and journalists. Researchers have studied the importance of media literacy to counter disinformation.[20] This field also studies the emergence of echo chambers on social media and filter bubbles, which exacerbate the problem by limiting exposure to diverse perspectives.[18]

Market-oriented disinformation research

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The study of the financial incentives and business models that make the distribution and amplification of disinformation profitable for multiple actors.[21][2] Research in the field includes the monetization practices of influencer marketing[22] that rewards creators to post and amplify harmful content.[23] It also includes research on the the overlap between the mechanisms used to commit ad fraud and revenue that funds and bankrolls fake news websites.[7]

The psychology of fake news

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A sub field of psychology that examines the cognitive processes that influence why people believe and share misinformation and fake news.[24] Key factors include cognitive biases with which individuals favor information that fits with their pre-existing beliefs.[25] Other findings include how the repeated exposure to false information increases its perceived accuracy. The presence of echo chambers reinforces group identity dynamics that further amplify its spread.[18] Additionally, the overwhelming volume of information in digital environments encourages the use of heuristics.

Challenges and critiques to disinformation research

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Researchers have criticized an over emphasis on digital platforms, failing to pay attention to context and power.[26] Moreover, there is an overemphasis on disinformation on the United States, and the terms that make sense only within the American political context.[27] There is a stream that examines disinformation in the Global South.[28]

There are technical challenges to conduct resesearch on disinformation because some social media companies do not allow researchers to access their data.[29] For example, Meta has been criticized for preventing outside research of disinformation,[30] discontinuing tools like CrowdTangle, which allowed researchers to conduct social media analysis.[31][32][33]

Alternative perspectives include:

  1. Moving beyond fact-checking and media literacy.
  2. Moving beyond technical solutions including AI-enhanced fact checking.
  3. Develop a theory that goes beyond Americentrism to develop a global perspective.[34]
  4. Understand the business models that nudge content creators and digital platforms to circulate disinformation.[2][7]
  5. Develop a multidiciplinary approach to disinformation, including history, political economy, ethnic studies, feminist studies, and science and technology studies.
  6. Understand Gendered-based disinformation (GBD) that specifically targets women in public roles like political leaders or journalists.[35][36]

References

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  1. ^ Kapantai, Eleni; Christopoulou, Androniki; Berberidis, Christos; Peristeras, Vassilios (2021-05-01). "A systematic literature review on disinformation: Toward a unified taxonomical framework". New Media & Society. 23 (5): 1301–1326. doi:10.1177/1461444820959296. ISSN 1461-4448.
  2. ^ a b c d Diaz Ruiz, Carlos (2023). "Disinformation on digital media platforms: A market-shaping approach". New Media & Society. Online first: 1–24. doi:10.1177/14614448231207644. S2CID 264816011. This article incorporates text from this source, which is available under the CC BY 4.0 license.
  3. ^ Madrid-Morales and, Dani; Wasserman, Herman (2022), "Research Methods in Comparative Disinformation Studies", Disinformation in the Global South, John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. 41–57, doi:10.1002/9781119714491.ch4, ISBN 978-1-119-71449-1, retrieved 2024-12-16
  4. ^ Summer 2019, Israel Vargas. "Tackling Disinformation". www.hks.harvard.edu. Retrieved 2024-12-16.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ Freelon, Deen; Wells, Chris (2020-03-03). "Disinformation as Political Communication". Political Communication. 37 (2): 145–156. doi:10.1080/10584609.2020.1723755. ISSN 1058-4609.
  6. ^ Suarez-Lledo, Victor; Alvarez-Galvez, Javier (2021-01-20). "Prevalence of Health Misinformation on Social Media: Systematic Review". Journal of Medical Internet Research. 23 (1): e17187. doi:10.2196/17187. PMC 7857950. PMID 33470931.
  7. ^ a b c Diaz Ruiz, Carlos A. (2024). "Disinformation and fake news as externalities of digital advertising: a close reading of sociotechnical imaginaries in programmatic advertising". Journal of Marketing Management: 1–23. doi:10.1080/0267257x.2024.2421860. ISSN 0267-257X.
  8. ^ Kuo, Rachel; Marwick, Alice (2021-08-12). "Critical disinformation studies: History, power, and politics". Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review. doi:10.37016/mr-2020-76.
  9. ^ "Countering Disinformation Effectively: An Evidence-Based Policy Guide". Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Retrieved 2024-12-16.
  10. ^ "Disinformation, Propaganda & Soft Power Research Lab (DPS-Lab) | LUT University". www.lut.fi. 2024-04-24. Retrieved 2024-12-16.
  11. ^ "EU DisinfoLab". EU DisinfoLab. Retrieved 2024-12-16.
  12. ^ "Disinformation | Chatham House – International Affairs Think Tank". www.chathamhouse.org. 2024-12-09. Retrieved 2024-12-16.
  13. ^ Allcott, Hunt; Gentzkow, Matthew (2017-05-01). "Social Media and Fake News in the 2016 Election". Journal of Economic Perspectives. 31 (2): 211–236. doi:10.1257/jep.31.2.211. ISSN 0895-3309.
  14. ^ Zarocostas, John (2020-02-29). "How to fight an infodemic". The Lancet. 395 (10225): 676. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30461-X. ISSN 0140-6736. PMC 7133615. PMID 32113495.
  15. ^ "Mission | HKS Misinformation Review". Retrieved 2024-12-16.
  16. ^ Freelon, Deen; Wells, Chris (2020-03-03). "Disinformation as Political Communication". Political Communication. 37 (2). doi:10.1080/10584609.2020.1723755. ISSN 1058-4609.
  17. ^ Serrano-Puche, Javier (2021-05-04). "Digital disinformation and emotions: exploring the social risks of affective polarization". International Review of Sociology. 31 (2). doi:10.1080/03906701.2021.1947953. ISSN 0390-6701.
  18. ^ a b c Diaz Ruiz, Carlos; Nilsson, Tomas (2023-01-01). "Disinformation and Echo Chambers: How Disinformation Circulates on Social Media Through Identity-Driven Controversies". Journal of Public Policy & Marketing. 42 (1): 18–35. doi:10.1177/07439156221103852. ISSN 0743-9156.
  19. ^ Bennett, W Lance; Livingston, Steven (2018-04-01). "The disinformation order: Disruptive communication and the decline of democratic institutions". European Journal of Communication. 33 (2): 122–139. doi:10.1177/0267323118760317. ISSN 0267-3231.
  20. ^ Dame Adjin-Tettey, Theodora (2022-12-31). "Combating fake news, disinformation, and misinformation: Experimental evidence for media literacy education". Cogent Arts & Humanities. 9 (1). doi:10.1080/23311983.2022.2037229.
  21. ^ Diaz Ruiz, Carlos (2025). Market-Oriented Disinformation Research: Digital Advertising, Disinformation and Fake News on Social Media. UK: Routledge. ISBN 9781032828541.
  22. ^ Bahar, Varqa Shamsi; Hasan, Mahmudul (2024-01-01). "#Fakefamous: how do influencers use disinformation to establish long-term credibility on social media?". Information Technology & People. doi:10.1108/ITP-05-2023-0421. ISSN 0959-3845.
  23. ^ Mulcahy, Rory; Barnes, Renee; de Villiers Scheepers, Retha; Kay, Samantha; List, Eleanor (2024-08-25). "Going Viral: Sharing of Misinformation by Social Media Influencers". Australasian Marketing Journal: 14413582241273987. doi:10.1177/14413582241273987. ISSN 1441-3582.
  24. ^ Pennycook, Gordon; Rand, David G. (2021-05-01). "The Psychology of Fake News". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 25 (5): 388–402. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2021.02.007. ISSN 1364-6613. PMID 33736957.
  25. ^ Lazer, David M. J.; Baum, Matthew A.; Benkler, Yochai; Berinsky, Adam J.; Greenhill, Kelly M.; Menczer, Filippo; Metzger, Miriam J.; Nyhan, Brendan; Pennycook, Gordon; Rothschild, David; Schudson, Michael; Sloman, Steven A.; Sunstein, Cass R.; Thorson, Emily A.; Watts, Duncan J. (2018-03-09). "The science of fake news". Science. 359 (6380): 1094–1096. doi:10.1126/science.aao2998.
  26. ^ Kuo, Rachel; Marwick, Alice (2021-08-12). "Critical disinformation studies: History, power, and politics". Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review. doi:10.37016/mr-2020-76. Archived from the original on 2023-10-15.
  27. ^ "What Comes After Disinformation Studies?". Center for Information, Technology, & Public Life (CITAP), University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Archived from the original on 2023-02-03. Retrieved 2024-01-16.
  28. ^ Wasserman, Herman; Madrid-Morales, Dani, eds. (2022-04-12). Disinformation in the Global South (1 ed.). Wiley. doi:10.1002/9781119714491. ISBN 978-1-119-71444-6. Archived from the original on 4 March 2024. Retrieved 4 March 2024.
  29. ^ Shu, Kai; Sliva, Amy; Wang, Suhang; Tang, Jiliang; Liu, Huan (2017-09-01). "Fake News Detection on Social Media: A Data Mining Perspective". ACM SIGKDD Explorations Newsletter. 19 (1): 22–36. arXiv:1708.01967. doi:10.1145/3137597.3137600. ISSN 1931-0145. S2CID 207718082. Archived from the original on 5 February 2022. Retrieved 1 February 2022.
  30. ^ Edelson, Laura; McCoy, Damon (2021-08-14). "Facebook shut down our research into its role in spreading disinformation". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 24 March 2022. Retrieved 2022-02-01.
  31. ^ Krishnan, Nandita; Gu, Jiayan; Tromble, Rebekah; Abroms, Lorien C. (2021-12-15). "Research note: Examining how various social media platforms have responded to COVID-19 misinformation". Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review. doi:10.37016/mr-2020-85. S2CID 245256590. Archived from the original on 3 February 2022. Retrieved 1 February 2022.
  32. ^ "Only Facebook knows the extent of its misinformation problem. And it's not sharing, even with the White House". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on 5 February 2022. Retrieved 2022-02-01.
  33. ^ Edelson, Laura; McCoy, Damon. "How Facebook Hinders Misinformation Research". Scientific American. Archived from the original on 2 February 2022. Retrieved 2022-02-01.
  34. ^ Tworek, Heidi (2022-08-02). "Can We Move Beyond Disinformation Studies?". Centre for International Governance Innovation. Archived from the original on 2023-06-01. Retrieved 2024-01-16.
  35. ^ Sessa, Maria Giovanna (2020-12-04). "Misogyny and Misinformation: An analysis of gendered disinformation tactics during the COVID-19 pandemic". EU DisinfoLab. Archived from the original on 2023-09-19. Retrieved 2024-01-16.
  36. ^ Sessa, Maria Giovanna (2022-01-26). "What is Gendered Disinformation?". Heinrich Böll Foundation. Archived from the original on 2022-07-21. Retrieved 2024-01-16.
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