Draft:Circassian-Kumyk Wars
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| Circassian-Kumyk Wars | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Part of North-East Caucasus Power Struggles | |||||||||
| |||||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||||
 Kabardia (East Circassia) AbaziniaSupported:  Tsardom of Russia |
 Kumyks Nogais Chechens Avar Khanate Agul people.jpg){kind=small} Dargins Laks Lezgins Tabasarans Rutuls Tsakhurs Karachay troops Balkar volunteersSupported:  Ottoman Empire | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
|
Temryuk Idarov Mudar Alkhasov Islam-bek Misostov |
Shamkhal of Tarki Sultan-Mut Aytemir Kazanalip | ||||||||
| Strength | |||||||||
| Kabardian forces supported by Russia, with occasional intervention by the Ottoman Empire | Kumyk alliances with Nogai and other North Caucasian groups; military forces in the Endirey domain | ||||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
| lower casualties in military clashes, but no exact numbers recorded | High casualties in military clashes, but no exact numbers recorded | ||||||||
| Diplomacy and alliances played a significant role; dynastic marriages and treaties of "odinyachestvo" were common | |||||||||
The Circassian-Kumyk Wars was a prolonged political and military conflict during the late 16th to early 18th centuries, centered on the struggle for hegemony in the North-Eastern Caucasus. Circassian princes frequently outmaneuvered Kumyk feudal lords through strategic alliances with Russia and superior diplomacy.[1]
Background
[edit]The North Caucasus, with its diverse ethnic groups and strategic location, has historically been a center of rivalry among feudal powers. During the late 16th to early 18th centuries, the Kumyk feudal lords and Kabardian princes were the main contenders for political and military dominance in the region. Their rivalry was marked by military conflicts, diplomatic efforts, and occasional alliances, including dynastic marriages.[1]
Despite significant conflicts, both groups preferred diplomacy over prolonged warfare. The use of dynastic marriages and treaties often helped mitigate their disputes.[2]
Their struggle for dominance also drew the involvement of neighboring powers, such as Russia and the Ottoman Empire, which sought to expand their influence in the region.[3]
History
[edit]16th Century
[edit]The rivalry between the Kumyk feudal lords and Kabardian princes was rooted in territorial disputes and competition for influence in the North Caucasus. In the 16th century, the conflict alternated between periods of open warfare and diplomatic negotiations. Both sides frequently sought support from powerful neighbors, including Russia, Safavid Iran, and the Ottoman Empire.[1]
In 1555, envoys from the Shamkhalate of Tarki and the Tyumen Khanate arrived in Moscow to seek military support against Kabardian attacks. As stated in historical records, they pledged loyalty to Ivan the Terrible and agreed to collaborate with Russian forces.[4]
The Kabardian princes, particularly those from the Cherkassky lineage, also sought Moscow's assistance during the same period. In 1557, Kabardia officially aligned with Russia, cementing the alliance with the marriage of Ivan the Terrible to Maria Temryukovna, the daughter of Kabardian prince Temryuk Idarov.[5]
Despite these alliances, conflicts persisted. In 1560, Russian forces led by Ivan Cheremisinov were deployed to assist Kabardians against the Shamkhal of Tarki, culminating in a brief but intense campaign in Dagestan. Although the expedition faced setbacks, it demonstrated Russia's growing interest in the region.[6].
In 1566, tensions escalated into a major battle in Kabardia between opposing factions. Temryuk Idarov led a coalition of Kabardian princes against Shamkhal Budai of Tarki and his allies, including Nogai leaders. Although Temryuk's forces emerged victorious, the conflict inflicted significant losses on both sides. The death of Shamkhal Budai in this battle marked a turning point, as Kabardians began consolidating their influence with Russian support.[5][2]
17th Century
[edit]By the early 17th century, the balance of power shifted in favor of the Kumyks, particularly with the establishment of the powerful Endirey Principality in northern Dagestan. Leaders like Sultan-Mut and his successors expanded their influence into Kabardian territories, exploiting internal divisions among Kabardian princes.[7]
In 1618, the Georgian envoy Khariton reported that Sultan-Mut held considerable sway over Kabardian affairs, often intervening in local disputes to support his allies. This influence alarmed both Russia and Safavid Iran, leading to further complications in the region's geopolitics.[8]
During the mid-17th century, internal feuds among Kabardian princes created opportunities for Kumyk leaders to assert their dominance. Notable Kumyk figures such as Sultan-Mut and his son Ayde-Mir frequently raided Kabardian territories, further destabilizing the region. In one notable instance in 1629, Ayde-Mir joined forces with Kabardian allies to launch a raid into Balkaria, targeting rival Kabardian factions.[1]
The rivalry intensified in 1641 with the Battle of the Malka River, where pro-Russian Kabardian princes, supported by Russian forces and Nogai allies, clashed with a coalition of anti-Russian Kabardians and Kumyk forces. Despite heavy losses on both sides, including the deaths of Ayde-Mir and key Kabardian leaders, the battle underscored the deep divisions and the complex interplay of alliances in the North Caucasus.[2][5]
18th Century
[edit]In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the rivalry between the Kumyks and Kabardians became intertwined with the geopolitical ambitions of major powers, including Russia, Ottoman Turkey, and Safavid Iran. This period was marked by shifting alliances and heightened conflicts as each side sought external support to strengthen its position.[1]
One significant episode occurred in the 1720s when Kumyk feudal lords, led by Shamkhal Adil-Girey, became actively involved in Kabardian internal disputes. Adil-Girey aligned with the pro-Russian faction of Kabardian princes, including Arslanbek Kaitukin, against anti-Russian forces led by Islam-Bek Misostov. Despite Russian backing, these efforts failed to unify Kabardian factions under one leadership, further deepening divisions.[9]
During the same period, the Kumyk leaders of the Endirey Principality sought to expand their influence over neighboring territories, including Kabardia. Sultan-Mut’s descendant, Kazanali, played a pivotal role in asserting Kumyk dominance. His alliances with certain Kabardian clans, such as the Mundarovs and Sholohovs, strengthened his position, but also provoked resistance from other Kabardian princes.[7][6]
In 1741, the longstanding rivalry culminated in another major conflict near the Malka River. A coalition of pro-Russian Kabardian princes and Kumyk leaders, supported by Nogai troops and Russian forces, faced off against an anti-Russian faction. Although the pro-Russian coalition achieved a tactical victory, the cost in lives and resources was significant. This event highlighted the continued instability and fragmentation of power in the region.[1]
Despite ongoing conflicts, the Kumyk and Kabardian elites occasionally pursued peaceful relations through dynastic marriages and diplomatic agreements. For instance, Sultan-Mut’s son, Ayde-Mir, married a Kabardian princess, while other Kumyk leaders served as mediators in Kabardian disputes.[8][10]
By the mid-18th century, the rivalry began to wane as both groups faced increasing pressure from external powers, particularly Russia, which sought to consolidate its dominance in the North Caucasus. The construction of Russian fortresses and the establishment of direct control over key territories marked the beginning of a new era in the region’s history.[3]
The involvement of Russia in the North Caucasus further escalated tensions between the Kumyks and Kabardians. During the reign of Peter the Great, Russia actively intervened in local disputes, often supporting pro-Russian Kabardian factions to weaken anti-Russian forces and their Kumyk allies. In 1722, Peter I issued a decree instructing Russian garrisons to assist Shamkhal Adil-Girey against his enemies, which included certain Kabardian factions.[5][6]
By the 1740s, the Kumyk leaders increasingly acted as mediators in Kabardian feuds. For example, in 1745, Arslanbek Kaitukin, a prominent Kabardian prince, requested the intervention of Kumyk lords Alesh Hamzin and Alibek Sultan-Mamutov to resolve disputes among Kabardian nobles. This reflected a growing recognition of the Kumyks’ diplomatic influence in the region.[10][9]
The practice of dynastic marriages also continued to play a significant role in fostering temporary alliances. Many Kabardian nobles intermarried with Kumyk families, strengthening social and political ties. For instance, Sultan-Mut's family maintained close relations with Kabardian aristocracy, facilitating periodic cooperation despite the overarching rivalry.[1][2]
At the same time, the influence of external powers such as the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Iran diminished as Russia consolidated its control over the North Caucasus. The construction of new fortifications, including the Kizlyar Fortress and the Sunzha Line, limited the ability of both Kumyk and Kabardian leaders to operate independently. This shift marked the decline of their rivalry as regional powers and the beginning of their subordination to Russian imperial rule.[3][6]
Legacy
[edit]The centuries-long rivalry between the Kumyk feudal lords and Kabardian princes left a lasting impact on the political and cultural history of the North Caucasus. Their conflicts and alliances shaped the region’s geopolitical landscape and influenced the strategies of neighboring powers, including Russia, the Ottoman Empire, and Iran.[7][9]
The rivalry also contributed to the development of shared cultural practices between the Kumyks and Kabardians, including common legal norms (adat), intermarriages, and traditions of atalyk (fosterage). These interactions, though rooted in conflict, fostered a degree of cultural exchange and mutual influence that persists to this day.[10][1]
With the increasing dominance of Russia in the 18th century, the Kumyks and Kabardians lost much of their political autonomy. However, their legacy remains evident in the historical memory and cultural traditions of the peoples of the North Caucasus.[5][2]
Results
[edit]The Circassians’ success in the rivalry can be attributed to several factors:
- Strategic Alliances: The alliance with Russia provided military and logistical support, allowing the Circassians to outmatch the Kumyks.
- Superior Diplomacy: Circassian leaders effectively negotiated peace treaties and dynastic marriages to secure their position.
- Cohesive Leadership: Unlike the fragmented Kumyk alliances, Circassian princes maintained unified leadership, strengthening their territorial control.
Bibliography
[edit]- Акбиев, Арсен (2015). Соперничество кумыкских и кабардинских феодалов (in Russian). Dagestan State Pedagogical University. pp. 1–15.
- Кушева, Е.Н. (1963). Народы Северного Кавказа и их связи с Россией (in Russian). Мoscow State University. pp. 242–277.
- Смирнов, Н.А. (1957). История Кабарды. Наука. pp. 283–394.
- Бутков, П.Г. (1869). Материалы для новой истории Кавказа. Imperial Academy of Sciences. pp. 203–263.
- Абдусаламов, М.-П.Б. (2012). Феодальные междоусобицы в Кабарде. Vol. 8. Вопросы истории. pp. 153–156.
- Акбиев, А.С. (2000). Общественный строй кумыков в XVII–XVIII веках. Makhachkala. p. 303.
References
[edit]- ^ a b c d e f g h Акбиев, А.С.; Абдусаламов, М.-П.Б. (2015). "Соперничество кумыкских и кабардинских феодальных владетелей за гегемонию на Северо-Восточном Кавказе во 2-й половине XVI – 1-й половине XVIII века". Гуманитарный журнал. 5: 5–15.
- ^ a b c d e Кидирниязов, Д.С. (2008). Взаимоотношения ногайцев с народами Северо-Восточного Кавказа в XVI – нач. XX в. Махачкала: Дагестанское книжное издательство. p. 295.
- ^ a b c Кушева, Е.Н. (1963). Народы Северного Кавказа и их связи с Россией (вторая половина XVI – 30-е годы XVII в.). Москва: Наука. p. 372.
- ^ Белокуров, С.А. (1889). Сношения России с Кавказом. Материалы, извлеченные из Московского главного архива министерства иностранных дел. Вып. 1. 1578–1613 гг. Москва: Типография Императорского общества истории и древностей российских. pp. LI.
- ^ a b c d e Букалова, В.М. (1957). Кабардино-русские отношения в XVI–XVIII вв.: док. и материалы. Москва: Издательство Академии наук СССР. p. 283.
- ^ a b c d Османов, А.И. (2004). История Дагестана с древнейших времен до XX века. Москва: Наука. p. 383.
- ^ a b c Ахмадов, Я.З. (1988). Очерки политической истории народов Северного Кавказа в XVI–XVII вв. Грозный: Чечено-Ингушское книжное издательство. pp. 274–275.
- ^ a b Полиевктов, М. (1937). Материалы по истории грузино-русских взаимоотношений (1615–1640). Тбилиси: Издательство Академии наук Грузии. p. 42.
- ^ a b c Абдусаламов, М.-П.Б. (2012). "Феодальные междоусобицы в Кабарде в начале XVIII века". Вопросы истории (8): 153–156.
- ^ a b c Гусейнов, Г.-Р.А.-К. (2005). "Одинокий герой: Солтан-Мут и западная ойкумена кумыкского фольклора". Интеллектуальная история: факты, события, люди. 1: 65–71.
- 16th-century conflicts
- 17th-century conflicts
- 18th-century conflicts
- Wars involving the Circassians
- History_of_the_Kumyk_people
- History of Dagestan
- History of the North Caucasus
- History of the Caucasus under the Russian Empire
- Invasions by Russia
- Kingdom of Kartli-Kakheti
- 19th century in the Russian Empire
- Territorial evolution of Russia
- Violence against indigenous peoples
- Russo-Persian Wars
- Caucasus Viceroyalty (1801–1917)
- History of European colonialism
- Wars involving the Tsardom of Russia
- Wars involving the Russian Empire