Jump to content

Draft:Astroclimatology

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
  • Comment: The article needs to be made more concise and encyclopedic in nature. Some sections are hard to follow or see the relevancy to the article's topic such as the introduction. The reference section also needs to be fixed to conform to citation standards. KeepItGoingForward (talk) 21:49, 5 November 2024 (UTC)


Astroclimatology is the application of climate (the emergent property of weather statistics) to the practice of astronomy (study of the universe, here, observation by Earth telescopes). While chiefly using standard climatology, some specifics of astroclimatology led to new applications and data products. In a few cases, observing sites run their own field centers, with numerical prediction operations and climate databases. Different areas of astronomy have different interactions with Earth's atmosphere, and different needs.

Introduction

[edit]

Climate is not weather.[1][2] Telescopes, in glass and metal, are durable goods, lasting centuries in some cases.[3][4] Weather, the study of the state of the atmosphere, becomes trivial per se with enough states. This span is often given as, at minimum, five years.[5][6] Larger and larger telescopes grew in upfront cost to millions (now billions) of dollars/euros; site choice is then vital in justifying investments.[7][8][9] After building such projects, current and recurrent weather states are used to maximize processes and results, as observing time is a scarce resource and recurring cost.

Astronomy from the ground is 'like bird-watching from the bottom of a pool.'[10][11] Clear air is not completely clear. Even with the naked eye, unclear air in the form of haze, fog, etc. scintillation ("twinkling") was pondered by ancient philosophers but no real obstacle to their other questions. As the telescope was invented, then grew in aperture, twinkles gave way to astronomical seeing—image distortions caused by turbulent air. On a practical, immediate level, aerial telescopes were mounted outdoors and vulnerable to the wind. Astronomy continued to expand, such as to other bands in the electromagnetic spectrum. Some bands are less affected by scintillation and seeing; others are strongly affected or even interrupted by what one perceives as "clear" air.

Atmospheric Optics and Early Efforts

[edit]

Galileo Galilei, an early telescope pioneer, also invented an early thermometer. One of his students, Evangelista Torricelli, would invent the barometer, which resembled the Galilean thermometer. Blaise Pascal and others, at Torricelli's suggestion, climbed towers and mountains with barometers. They concluded we live under "an ocean of air."[12]

Isaac Newton, himself an optical pioneer, would later surmise "to take away that confusion of the Rays which arises from the Tremors of the Atmosphere. The only remedy is a most serene and quiet Air, such as may perhaps be found on the tops of the highest Mountains above the grosser clouds."[13]

Few heeded Newton's advice.[14] Telescopes were still small by today's standards, many observers were "gentlemen scientists" consuming their own resources,[15] and travel was rare and expensive. Astronomy was chiefly performed from Europe, at times the U. S. East Coast.[16][17] The early Harvard Observatory, at Cambridge, is basically at sea level, next to Boston. John Quincy Adams, then Secretary of State, in urging various groups to found U. S. Observatories,[18] recommended that 'the site nearest the College should be selected, ...proximity to the College being, in his judgement, important to the health and comfort to the Professor and the students, as the night and winter are the time and season specifically adapted to astronomical observations.'[19]

The Cape Observatory, (officially, Royal Observatory at Cape town) was nominally established in 1820. Ostensibly, choosing such a remote site gave access to Southern skies, not possible from Greenwich or similar European observatories. Note, however, that the Cape location was approved by the Board of Longitude, and Admiralty funded. They built it within site of Cape Town Harbour so it could signal time to ships, and further the British Empire; no Observatory telescope was mounted until 1828.[20]

Lassell had a 2-foot-aperture reflecting telescope in 1852. Using speculum mirrors, they had some issues, but larger apertures than refractors. He took this reflector, seeking better conditions, to Malta—still near sea level.

Well over a century after Newton, Charles Piazzi Smyth, Royal Astronomer of Scotland, examined Tenerife in 1856. His crew scaled Tenerife's Pico del Teide with a "portable" telescope and instruments.[21] His account (Teneriffe, an Astronomer's Experiment[22]) circulated among astronomers. Yet it would be about a century more before the peak would be developed into the Observatorio del Teide.[23]

An example of willful telescope siting is the 1893 U. S. Naval Observatory relocation from Foggy Bottom, to its current Georgetown Heights spot, both within Washington, D. C. This gain was from ~92 feet above sea level, to ~279' or not even 190' more altitude. At the Foggy Bottom site, the USNO, like Cape Town, displayed time to ships in the Potomac River, with the new time ball.[24] Eventually, a system of telegraphs allowed the relay of time signals without direct line of sight. The move was more a matter of contention for the downtown Washington property.[25]

Lick Observatory was the first observatory as we understand today—a permanent, mountaintop site, on Mount Hamilton, California. (A Mount Etna observatory only bore a telescope a few months out of the year.[14]) At 4200 feet, Mt. Hamilton has prominence—no similar mountain is anywhere near. James Lick commissioned a 36-inch Clark refractor, to be the world's largest. Lick had discussed exceptional altitudes for it before his death,[26] signing the choice of Mt. Hamilton himself.[27]

At the time, Harvard Observatory also looked for a better site than its own campus. Uriah A. Boyden willed money to Harvard for "observations at some station of great elevation above the level of the sea." Initial work used "Mount Harvard" near Lima, Peru, then another Peruvian site, Arequipa. This Boyden Station (8,000 ft, 2,400 m), like Cape Town, did Southern observations. Harvard staff also tried more-convenient peaks in Colorado and Utah;[28] they identified Mount Wilson in Southern California as "so excellent", but bought no land.[29][30][31] W. H. Pickering, Harvard astronomer and Arequipa director, stated "the selection of a proper site for an observatory is by no means merely a question of elevation."[32][33]

Three pending volumes of the Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College—volumes XIX,[34][35] XX,[36] and XXI[37][38][39]—would deal with weather, climate, and other atmospheric topics, as well as parts of volume XXIX.[40]

Percival Lowell, also from Boston, founded his observatory at Flagstaff, Arizona, which was rail-accessible.[7] The Lowell Observatory is on a mesa ~350 feet above Flagstaff proper, ~3000' above the desert floor, and ~7250' above sea level. Lowell had Harvard astronomer A. E. Douglass test it in March, 1894. Lowell did no astroclimatology at all, proceeding with the side despite having only eleven nights of Douglass' data; observing began by June. Defying W. H. Pickering's experience, Lowell felt "the higher we can get the better".[41] The U. S. Naval Observatory would also open a Flagstaff station ("NOFS"). As with Cape Town, nautical requirements differ somewhat from astronomical ones. Much of the USNO concern is data needed by field units, who navigate with sextants or similar on bright stars, often at an altitude of zero. Many USNO star catalogs are thus compiled via telescopes of just 6-9 inch aperture[42][43][44] and a bit tolerant of the "disappointing" seeing.[15]

Lowell, preparing for the next Mars opposition, sought a different site to the south, to lower the airmass. A Tacubaya observatory was built, over Mexico City at ~7600' altitude.[7] "Considered astronomically," claimed lowell, "the Mexican seasons are the reverse of ours. Their winters are clear and fine, and their summers extremely stormy. So by a timely removal back to Arizona we had the advantage of the successive best seasons in the two places."[45]

Eclipses/occultations aside (constrained to shadow paths[46]), most other modern observational astronomy programs have taken the Lick choice.[47][48] Astroclimatology, then, is the initial exploration and continuing optimization of observatory sites and their observations, including Newton's "may perhaps" and Pickering's "by no means merely",[14] and far more than Lowell's eleven nights.[49][50][51][52]

Site Requirements

[edit]

To early astronomers, laymen, and even many amateurs, observing time is simply an issue of clouds or not[53]—a 'cloud cover' metric,[54][55] or in aviation meteorology, "visibility". Even radio waves have finite penetrations of thick clouds—radio astronomy is mature, and very sensitive.[56] Altitude per se may put a site over low cloud, fog, hazes, etc.[57][58][59]

The rise of spectrometry and photomotry/radiometry, and general astronomical progress, drove further demands—transparency and scattering/sky brightness.[5][60][61] A given night/hour may look cloud free, yet not be a "photometric night"[62] or "spectroscopic night."[21][63][23] Daytime (solar) work is even stricter: an overwhelming light means scattering that would be fine at night is now visible.[64] Such astronomers seek "coronagraphic" times.

Cloudiness is measured as a time fraction, and is not random. On wide scales, the Hadley cell males tropical air rise, then fall.[65] It rises past altitudes where water is lost to condensation/frost– the cold trap. The falling air is now dry and clear. Many telescopes have converged on the north and south latitudes of descending Hadley circulation, marked by Earth's "desert belts."[7][66]

Higher mountains in the Hadley latitudes are obvious candidates. Locally, an isolated peak may actually create descending air. At night, radiative cooling (solids viewing to cold space, not warm ground) may result in a downdraft, blowing away low cloud. This down current is also stable, being undisturbed by ground, trees, or other obstructions, unlike horizontal winds.

High winds cause telescope shake, ending observations outright[67][68][23] or by lofting dust.[5] Very low or no winds[69] now affect sensitive infrared work—the "low wind effect".[70][71][72]

On a practical level, sites also contend with accessibility, power and communications, access to supplies and spare parts, etc.[60][73][54] Unfortunately, such human activities include light pollution, dusts,[5][74] and smog, and in radio astronomy, EMI[62][75][66] Telecommunications/remote observing helps one of these, not all.

Seeing

[edit]

Turbulent air takes the form of eddies or cells. The smallest cells are a few centimeters ("inner scale," or l0), limited by the viscosity of air. Different cells can maintain slight temperature differences, and different temperatures result in different indices of refraction.[76] Differing refractions bend light rays, distorting the view.[7][65] Apertures of early telescopes took a few decades to exceed l0; Huygens was the first to publish on this phenomenon.

Imperfect seeing, as one might assume, results in blurred images. Point targets, like stars, are also affected. Seeing causes points to turn into disks for nontrivial exposure times, as the target's light spreads to more halide grains/detector pixels. Spreading of light hurts sensitivity compared to one, sharp point;[77] noise is also introduced when formerly background pixels (both the cosmic background, and intervening air) are now included in the disk.[60]

The viscosity limit is a lower limit; at a given time and place, effective cell size may be larger, given as the metric r0, or "Fried parameter"[78] (Various light wavelengths, with different penetrating powers, also take different r0 values at the same time.) Astroclimatology seeks maximal r0, in turn minimizing the number of air cells in the telescope beam and their distortions of the target.

The introduction of adaptive optics did not stop astroclimate issues.[9] AO correction is imperfect, leaving residual speckles.[79][80] Times of bad seeing can exceed the bandwidth of the AO system.[81] At minimum, local conditions are used to tune AO system parameters.[50][77]

Astroclimate Metrics and Site Selection

[edit]

Basic meteorology parameters—temperature, wind, humidity—are considered, as well as other measurements and derived products.[49][82][2] Unfortunately, standard meteorological grids have spacings of kilometers, too coarse for e. g., one mountaintop.[66] The met grid is still used as context and cross-comparison, for an ad hoc weather station placed on a candidate site.[83][84][85]

A precipitable water vapor (PWV) dataset is a general weather statistic, and a specific requirement for work in certain bands. However, PWV is not by itself sufficient,[50][86] as other chemicals absorb light.[87] Water vapor is local, highly anti-correlated with altitude.[88][89][90][66]

Upwind mountain ranges can also clear the skies via a rain shadow—a local water trap.[5][88][89] Unfortunately, the downwind air is disturbed: lee/gravity waves and at times roll cloud.[21][69][83][85][91][92][93] To an extent this includes mountains with no distinct peak.[5][94]

Wind is impeded by terrain, trees, etc.[95] A telescope mount is of a nontrivial size, and puts its telescope at some height. Site testing uses wind sensors on masts, to better replicate actual telescope conditions.[5][96] Since ground winds may be disturbed, some telescopes (e. g., Mayall, Bok) are mounted as towers,[94][97][98] implying the wind sensors should also be higher.[49][92][99]

All these vary with weather. An astroclimatology samples multiple weather systems (air masses and their fronts), passing on timescales of days. Seasonal effects are gauged versus each other (~months to semesters), and as seasons recur (>14 months). This still leaves secular effects.[100] As this schedule may be infeasible for a construction project,[101] general and regional meteorology data supplement astro-specific, on-site tests.[64][16] The three ELTs—TMT, GMT, and E-ELT—in particular chose sites of prior observatories.[100][102]

Seeing was commonly measured, in a sense, by observers logging the conditions as part of their observation[51][103][104]—similar to PIREP. This lasted into the 1980s.[67][101] Manual reports are subjective—varying with training/experience—and subject to e. g., operator fatigue.[5][60]

Reports are now indirect: temperature-gradient and wind data,[5][64][50][93][66] and direct, via small telescopes.[105][106][107] In particular, wind at 200 millibar height (often, 12-14 km) is a good proxy for wind shear, thus rough air, for both aircraft and astronomy.[92][108][109][110] Other layers exist and may be gauged.[111][112] As in aviation, the Richardson number is a metric for laminar-to-turbulent tripping.[113][114][93][91]

At night, Fried's parameter r0 for much of the Earth is casually given as 12 to 15 cm (in visible light) on a good night. There are bad nights, with a lower r0, and moments of still air, with r0 higher.[115] Alternately, this equates to a telescope with ~1 arcsecond of angular resolution (defining the parameter /epsi/). Such a telescope would have few seeing effects on such nights.[108][23][77]

At world-class observing sites, r0 ~12-15 cm (or, 1 arcsec seeing) on a regular basis.[79][116] Their good nights may allow /epsi/ ~0.7 arcsec resolutions, for longer than moments. Daytime (solar) views are worse, with a heat source and agitated air. Day r0 is worse and more varying, <4 cm, to at times 9 cm. r0 at top sites may approach nighttime values.[50][115][117][118]

Other seeing metrics include coherence time, t0 (or inversely, "Greenwood frequency"), a measure of the effective cell lifetime, related to wind speed.[119][52] Good sites have longer t0: several milliseconds instead of a few ms.[76] The isoplanatic angle, /theta/, is the angular field of view over which the image distortion is one state, and can be corrected as such.[78] It is tied to ground turbulence at the site, versus turbulence at altitudes, which is more regional and smaller in angular size.[81][95]

Specific Sites

[edit]

Southern California Peaks

[edit]

At Mount Wilson Observatory's 1904 founding, Los Angeles was a small city in the distance. George Ellery Hale's first telescopes were solar anyway.[120] Hale, then at Yerkes Observatory, declined Lick Observatory, preferring Southern California to host new telescopes. Lick's W. J. Hussey, testing many sites, profferred Mt. Wilson.[121][120][16] A nearby ocean—nearer than at Mt. Hamilton[50]—means stable sea air.[122][101][65] Santa Ana winds begin in Fall;[5][69] Winter is worse and rainier.[120][16] Even with encroachment, CHARA (Center for High Angular Resolution Astronomy)[123] is productive at Mt. Wilson.[101] Stellar interferometry's very narrow fields admit little background and allow little light pollution, but accept the good seeing.[31][124]

It grew apparent that Los Angeles harmed sky quality. Palomar Mountain was then chosen, with many similar features but more remote,[125][126] yet not too far for Mt. Wilson/Caltech staff.[15][16] It would host the Hale Telescope, the world's largest. At 1706m, it is now a bit low.

It is from the Mt. Wilson/Palomar observatories that Caltech's Horace W. Babcock published the seminal adaptive optics paper, to make the seeing even better.[127][128]

Mauna Kea (and Similar)

[edit]

Mauna Kea is a dormant volcano on the big island of Hawaii. Having the lowest latitude of its peers, it can view over the equator. Mauna Kea, Haleakala, and Mauna Loa were identified in the 1950s for the (International Geophysical Year). Even prior, A. E. Douglass had noted the peaks to P. Lowell.[15] All benefit from low populations and industry;[53][129] all have high altitudes, Mauna Kea ~4200 meters asl, the others slightly less. These are among the highest observatories in the world, and above an inversion layer (often ~2500 m).[130][63][131][89] Much of the time, the peaks "jut through it and into the drier air above".[53]

Many factors besides simple height combine to make Mauna Kea 'best in the world'[67][94][132] or "best category",[66] "one of the best".[31][63][75][133] Oceanic winds have long damped out any turbulence from prior topography,[63][21][50] while these shield volcanos (with gentle, smooth slopes) add little new turbulence.[134] Radiative cooling at night, aided by the dark, volcanic soil, can add a downdraft.[53][134][130][67] The world-class seeing is almost that of the free atmosphere, dominated instead by a ground layer.[85][135]

Prior to permanent telescopes, meteorology was taken by Mauna Loa weather stations, at conditions close to Mauna Kea.[136][134] A Hilo record also exists, though near sea level. To verify and complement remote sensing data, radiosondes (weather balloons) were launched,[113][137] aside from standard (twice daily[114]) balloons from Hilo.[67][138] The array of telescopes has led the University of Hawaii to pool meteorology efforts into the MKWC (MaunaKea Weather Center).[139] This includes seeing forecasts, not attempted in general meteorology.[85][92]

With a climatology in hand, Summer is a better observing season.[85][92][113] Winters bring poorer weather,[57] at times the jet stream and its turbulence.[85][130] Less often, the area sees a cyclone or volcano eruption.

Northern Caucasus

[edit]

The Caucasus range's Mt. Pastukhova hosts the Special Astrophysical Observatory and BTA (Bolshoi Teleskop Azimutalnyi) at 2070m. At 6 meters aperture, BTA is the largest Soviet/Russian optical telescope. The poor BTA reputation conflates its flawed mirror, dome design, and the local conditions. Pastukhova air is affected by nearby mountains, but this flaw is not crippling.[140][96][141] The primary mirror was replaced;[142][16] the dome is now cooled to help reduce its local effect ("dome seeing").[142][96][141]

The telescope's large dome, of traditional (heavy) construction, has trouble acclimating to ambient temperature, while the rather unstable local weather makes pre-cooling difficult. The resulting thermal effects cause poor local seeing much of the time.[142]

Canary Islands

[edit]

Jean Mascart followed (in 1910, that is) Piazzi Smythe up Tenerife. This was organized by a tuberculosis group, but it coincided with a pass of Halley's Comet. Mascart's reports were also positive: Impressions et observations dans un voyage a Tenerife,[143] and more. Others used the site for a 1959 eclipse. Francisco Sánchez Martinez of Spain continued pursuing the Canaries as a site.[144][145][23] The Spanish Government founded a solar observatory first, the Observatorio del Teide (under the rectorship of the Universidad de La Laguna).

The first external body to use a Canarias peak was the University of Bordeaux, placing a polarimetry telescope there.[146] Around 1968, JOSO (Joint Organization for Solar Observations) was formed. Its role was to find site(s) to relocate national, solar telescopes, build similar new ones, and for one Large European Solar Telescope.[108][64][122] JOSO and others tested sites extensively; they are broadly similar to Hawaiian peaks, though lower. Both Pico del Teide and the later Roque de los Muchachos are often above a ~1,500m inversion layer[108][147] As stratovolcanos, both islands are steeper and cause some turbulence. Roque de los Muchachos is a simple peak (unlike the caldera of Pico del Teide); it presents a simpler, convex shape to the prevailing northerly winds.[23][148]

The signing of international treaties began the move of the Isaac Newton Telescope from Sussex, and construction of the William Herschel Telescope. Italy likewise chose the Canarias (for the Telescopio Nazionale Galileo),[149] as did other signatories with Spain.[150][151][152] Of the sites, La Palma tends to host stellar telescopes, while Tenerife hosts daytime observing, but both have exceptions.

The Canarias see Calima (dust blown from the Sahara), often in July/August.[64][23] Before a climatology was taken, some astronomers dismissed the Canarias as being under Calima much of the time.[145] Canarias volcanos, like Hawaiian ones, are still somewhat active.[23]

Northern Chile

[edit]

Research groups had made Chilean expeditions for e. g., eclipses.[120][15] Harvard's group, before settling on Arequipa, had also toured Chile.[29] "Perhaps no spot in all America offers a clearer sky than the Desert of Atacama."[153] At the behest of Federico Rutlant (director, Chile's Observatorio Nacional),[154][155] northern countries again considered joint astronomy sites. Jürgen Stock went to examine some; his positive results drew both US and European interest. The Andes, not merely tall, act as a rain barrier, forming the Amazon basin and in turn the Atacama Desert. Also, the south Pacific current is counterclockwise and cold, adding little moisture.[156]

Cerro Tololo was first chosen. This peak is not in the Atacama, but in Coquimbo; its mountains run closer to the sea.[157] Peaks off the main range have stiller, marine air. Later sites to the north enjoy both Atacama dryness and Pacific calmness. Similarly, the new European Southern Observatory (ESO) declined South African sites,[158] picking La Silla instead.[159][160]

The later Paranal is 2635m high, and a mere 12 km from the sea—far and high enough to avoid salt, yet often in sea air.[161]

The Chajnantor area—yet further north, and inland in the main Andes—is now a hub of radio/submillimeter astronomy, and declared a Chilean science preserve. Radio waves, much longer, can tolerate turbulence per se, but still see absorption/reradiation. Atacama dryness plus extreme elevation gives extremely thin, clear air.[162][163] Cerro Chajnantor at 5640m asl holds the world record for highest observatory.[164]

The austral Summer (January-February) sees the wryly named "altiplanic winter."[161][56] Humid airmasses cross from Bolivia; at these heights, the water may fall as snow. ALMA does not observe in Jan-Feb.[56]

ESO has founded a numerical weather initiative, MOSE (MOdeling Sites ESO). It is operational.[165][166]

Mount Graham

[edit]

Mount Graham, Arizona was identified as a good site in the 1980s,[49] in the National New Technology Telescope effort. While no NNTT was built, the Vatican Advanced Technology Telescope and Heinrich Hertz Telescope (a (sub/)millimeter dish) were. The later LBT (Large Binocular Telescope) resembles an NNTT concept.

The Pinaleo Mountains are inland, not coastal, in the Rocky Mountains. Still, the Pinaleos are isolated from other high mountains, giving lee air some time to dampen its eddies. Mt. Graham, the tallest (~3200 m) of few Pinaleos, is thus in calmer air than one may expect. Mt. Graham seeing is typical of the best sites.[49] Exactly because the Pinaleos are continental, not maritime, they get hot summers and cold winters.[88] Colder air than other sites—combined with altitude—means lower humidity.[167] Summers, including the Southwest Monsoon, are worse. The LBT shuts down for July-August, instead using the time for heavy maintenance and any upgrades.

The Mt. Graham weather center is named ALTA (Advanced LBT Turbulence and Atmosphere).[2][82][168]

Antarctica

[edit]

Antarctic air is at 100% relative humidity.[169][170] But, due to extreme cold, this is less water than elsewhere—the 'relative' in relative humidity.[171] Antarctica as a whole is the coldest, driest, and highest continent; ice sheets may add a kilometer or more to the underlying topography. The continent is a good fit for millimeter/submillimeter astronomy.[172][173] In shorter wavelengths, lack of solar forcing and jet streams (implying stable air), low pollution, and the long polar night, would imply good viewing sites. It is, usually, not good.[174]

Katabatic winds form when coldness causes downdrafts; with few terrain/trees, these winds gain speed and force. Such winds cause turbulence and bad seeing at most sites.[65][175][54] High spots, though, have only begun katabatic flow, and the issue is low.[65][171] Dome A (4090m) and Dome C (3233m) are so high as to be candidates at any latitude. Weak katabatic winds put these sites in mostly free, calm skies. Platform-/tower-mounted telescopes help evade what wind exists (as colder air, it hugs the ground).[176][177] The Domes have begun optical/infrared work needing clarity and transparency,[178][179] and/or uninterrupted nights/days.[116][180][181]

The aurora is a polar issue.[170] Some observing bands see no aurorae; other bands may have margin to filter such emission lines. Dome C is near the center of the auroral oval—the magnetic latitudes (not 90°) with most activity.[182][183][184]

Other Sites

[edit]
Tibet
[edit]

Many Chinese telescopes were at university-convenient sites—i. e., coastal. Elevations are moderate. Then Tibet was seen as favorable for, e. g., LOT (Large Optical/infrared Telescope) or similar.[185] The plateau is high, at fairly low latitude, and in the Himalayan rain shadow. These sites considered include Ali, Lenghu,[59] and Muztagh-ata.[185]

Solar
[edit]

Faced with insolation, heating, and thus turbulence on sunny days, the field of solar astronomy has found and exploited an answer: mountain lakes.[50][107] Bodies of water—even small lakes—have high thermal inertia and mixing, but no topography to trip airflow. Air is then calmer and smoother, for high resolutions. As winds do shift, placing telescopes on an islet or jetty helps the odds of good observing runs. Such sites include Locarno on Lake Maggiore, Italy,[186] Big Bear Lake, California at ~2070m,[69][187] BAO at Lake Baikal, Russia,[188] Fuxian in China (1720m),[110] and Udaipur (at Fateh Sagar Lake) in India.[189]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Tokovnin, A.; Vernin, J.; Ziad, A.; Chun, M. (Apr 2005). "Optical Turbulence Profiles at Mauna Kea Measured by MASS and SCIDAR". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 117 (830): 395–400. Bibcode:2005PASP..117..395T. doi:10.1086/428930.
  2. ^ a b c Turchi, A.; Masciadri, E.; Veillet, C. (29 Aug 2022). "Characterization of LBT atmospheric and turbulence conditions in the context of ALTA project". In Marshall, Heather K.; Spyromilio, Jason; Usuda, Tomonori (eds.). Proceedings, Ground-based and Airborne Telescopes IX. SPIE Astronomical Telescopes + Instrumentation; 17-23 July 2022; Montréal, Québec, Canada. Vol. 12182. p. 111. arXiv:2210.11247. Bibcode:2022SPIE12182E..4OT. doi:10.1117/12.2629813. ISBN 978-1-5106-5345-0. 121824O.
  3. ^ Nakamura, T. (2008). "The Earliest Telescope Preserved in Japan". Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage. 11 (3): 203. doi:10.3724/SP.J.1440-2807.2008.03.04.
  4. ^ "Collections at the Adler Planetarium". Adler Planetarium. Retrieved 13 Aug 2024.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Final Report on the Site Selection Survey for the National Astronomical Observatory". Kitt Peak National Observatory/AURA Inc. Contribution No. 45. 1958.
  6. ^ Menne, Matthew J.; Williams Jr., Claude N.; Palecki, Michael A. (2010). "On the relibility of the U. S. surface temperature record". Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres. 115 (D11). D11108. Bibcode:2010JGRD..11511108M. doi:10.1029/2009JD013094.
  7. ^ a b c d e Lowell, A. Lawrence (1935). Biography of Percival Lowell. New York: The Macmillan Company.
  8. ^ Bailey, Solon I. (Feb 1910). "The search for an ideal astronomical site". South African Journal of Science: 143.
  9. ^ a b Keil, S. L.; Rimmele, T. R.; Keller, C. U.; ATST Team (2001). "The Advanced Technology Solar Telescope". ASP Conference Series. 236: 597.
  10. ^ "Arthur D. Code, Pioneering Space Astronomer, Dies". Retrieved 13 Aug 2024.
  11. ^ "30 Years Ago: Hubble Launched to Unlock the Secrets of the Universe". Roundup. Johnson Space Center. Retrieved 13 Oct 2024.
  12. ^ West, J. B. (2013). "Torricelli and the ocean of air: the first measurement of barometric pressure". Physiology. 28 (2): 66–73. doi:10.1152/physiol.00053.2012. PMC 3768090. PMID 23455767.
  13. ^ Newton, Isaac (1730). Opticks (4th ed.).
  14. ^ a b c Holden, E. S. (1896). Mountain Observatories in America and Europe. Washington: Smithsonian Institution.
  15. ^ a b c d e Strauss, David (2001). Percival Lowell. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-00291-1.
  16. ^ a b c d e f Florence, Ronald (1994). The Perfect Machine. New York: HarperCollins. ISBN 0-06-018205-9.
  17. ^ Shy, J. R. (2002). "Early astronomy in America: The role of the College of William and Mary". Journal of Astronomical History and Heritage. 5: 41. doi:10.3724/SP.J.1440-2807.2002.01.05.
  18. ^ Gingerich, O. (1990). "Two Astronomical Anniversaries". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 21: 1.
  19. ^ Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College. I (Pt. II): V. 1853. {{cite journal}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  20. ^ "The Royal Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope (1959-1971)". Retrieved 13 Aug 2024.
  21. ^ a b c d Smith, F. G. (1981). "The New Observatory on La Palma". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 22: 254.
  22. ^ Piazzi Smyth, Charles (1858). Teneriffe, an Astronomer's Experiment. Cambridge University Press.
  23. ^ a b c d e f g h Murdin, P. (1985). "Nighttime skies above the Canary Islands". Vistas in Astronomy. 28 (2): 449. Bibcode:1985VA.....28..449M. doi:10.1016/0083-6656(85)90069-8.
  24. ^ Stephens, Stephens (Feb 1990). "Astronomy as Public Utility - the Bond Years at Harvard Observatory". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 21 (1): 21. Bibcode:1990JHA....21...21S. doi:10.1177/002182869002100104.
  25. ^ "History of the USNO". United States Naval Observatory.
  26. ^ Shane, M. L. (1971). "The Archives of Lick Observatory". Journal for the History of Astronomy. ii: 51. Bibcode:1971JHA.....2...51S. doi:10.1177/002182867100200112.
  27. ^ Misch, Anthony; Stone, Remington (1998). "Building the Observatory". The Lick Observatory Collections Project. Retrieved 13 Aug 2024.
  28. ^ "Meteorological Observations Made on The Summit of Pike's Peak, Colorado". Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College. XXII: 1.
  29. ^ a b Bailey, Solon I. (Feb 1922). "The Harvard Astronomical Observatory in Peru". Harvard Alumni Bulletin: 487.
  30. ^ Plotkin, H. (Feb 1990). "Edward Charles Pickering". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 21 (1): 47. Bibcode:1990JHA....21...47P. doi:10.1177/002182869002100106.
  31. ^ a b c Teare, Scott W.; Thompson, Laird A.; Gino, M. Colleen; Palmer, Kirk A. (2000). "Eight Decades of Astronomical Seeing Measurements at Mount Wilson Observatory". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 112 (777): 1496. Bibcode:2000PASP..112.1496T. doi:10.1086/317701.
  32. ^ Pickering, William H. (1892). "The Mountain Station of the Harvard College Observatory". Astronomy and Astro-Physics. 5: 353–357. Bibcode:1892AstAp..11..353P.
  33. ^ Sheehan (1988), p. 173.
  34. ^ Bond, William Cranch; Bond, George Phillips; Winlock, Joseph; Pickering, Edward C. (1889). "Meteorological Observations: Made During the Years 1840 to 1888 inclusive". Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College. XIX (Part I): 1. Bibcode:1889AnHar..19....1B. OCLC 21571901.
  35. ^ Searle, Arthur (1893). "Researches on The Zodiacal Light and on a Photographic Determination of The Atmospheric Absorption". Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College. XIX. Bibcode:1893rzlp.book.....S.
  36. ^ Rotch, Albert Lawrence; Pickering, Edward Charles (1889). "Observations made at the Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory, Massachusetts, USA, in the year 1887". Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College. XX (Part I): 1. Bibcode:1889AnHar..20....1R. OCLC 33074940.
  37. ^ New England Meteorological Society (1889). "Observations of the New England Meteorological Society in the year 1888". Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College. XXI (Part I): 1–105. Bibcode:1889AnHar..21....1P.
  38. ^ "Characteristics of the New England Climate". Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College. XXI.
  39. ^ "An Investigation of the Sea-Breeze". Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College. XXI.
  40. ^ Upton, Winslow; Rotch, Abbott Lawrence (1893). "Meteorological and Other Observations Made at Willows, California in Connection with the Total Solar Eclipse of January 1, 1889". Annals of the Astronomical Observatory of Harvard College. XXIX (1): 1–35. Bibcode:1893AnHar..29....1U. OCLC 33463210.
  41. ^ Sheehan (1988), p. 175.
  42. ^ Stone, Ronald C.; Monet, David G.; Monet, Alice K. B.; Walker, Richard L.; Ables, Harold D.; Bird, Alan R.; Harris, Frederick H. (1996). "The Flagstaff Astrometric Scanning Transit Telescope (FASTT) and Star Positions Determined in the Extragalactic Reference Frame". The Astronomical Journal. 111 (4): 1721. Bibcode:1996AJ....111.1721S. doi:10.1086/117913.
  43. ^ de Vegt, C.; Hindsley, R.; Zacharias, N.; Winter, L. (2001). "A Catalog of Faint Reference Stars in 398 Fields of Extragalactic Radio Reference Frame Sources". The Astronomical Journal. 121 (5): 2815–2818. Bibcode:2001AJ....121.2815D. doi:10.1086/320386.
  44. ^ Zacharias, N.; Urban, S. E.; Zacharias, M. I.; Wycoff, G. L.; Hall, D. M.; Monet, D. G.; Rafferty, T. J. (2004). "The Second US Naval Observatory CCD Astrograph Catalog (UCAC2)". The Astronomical Journal. 127 (5): 3043–3059. arXiv:astro-ph/0403060. Bibcode:2004AJ....127.3043Z. doi:10.1086/386353.
  45. ^ Lowell, Percival; Douglass, Andrew Ellicott (Dec 1900). "Observations of Mars, 1896 and 1897". Annals of the Lowell Observatory. 2 (Part II): 203. Bibcode:1900AnLow...2..205L. OCLC 33326384.
  46. ^ Buie, Marc W.; Keller, J. M. (2016). "The Research and Education Collaborative Occultation Network: A System for Coordinated TNO Occultation Observations". The Astronomical Journal. 151 (3): 73. Bibcode:2016AJ....151...73B. doi:10.3847/0004-6256/151/3/73.
  47. ^ "The Lick Observatory Collections Project: Home". Lick Observatory. Retrieved 13 Aug 2024.
  48. ^ "Observatory Site Selection". Retrieved 13 Sep 2024.
  49. ^ a b c d e Ulich, B. L.; Davison, W. B. (Jul 1985). "Seeing Measurements On Mount Graham". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 97: 609–15. Bibcode:1985PASP...97..609U. doi:10.1086/131575.
  50. ^ a b c d e f g h [Site Survey Working Group] (2004). "ATST Site Survey Working Group Final Report". Advanced Technology Solar Telescope Report (#0021).[full citation needed]
  51. ^ a b Dainty, J. C.; Scaddan, R. J. (Mar 1975). "Measurements of the Atmospheric Transfer Function at Mauna Kea, Hawaii". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 170: 519–532. Bibcode:1975MNRAS.170..519D. doi:10.1093/MNRAS/170.3.519. S2CID 122738989.
  52. ^ a b Masciadri, E.; Lascaux, F.; Turchi, A.; Fini, L. (26 Jul 2016). "Operational optical turbulence forecast for the service mode of top-class ground based telescopes". In Marchetti, Enrico; Close, Laird M.; Véran, Jean-Pierre (eds.). Adaptive Optics Systems V. Vol. 9909. 99090I. arXiv:1608.06506. Bibcode:2016SPIE.9909E..0IM. doi:10.1117/12.2231196.
  53. ^ a b c d Hansen, R. T.; Hansen, S. F.; Price, S. (1966). "An Example of Meteorological Considerations in Selecting an Observatory Site in Hawaii". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 78 (461): 14. Bibcode:1966PASP...78...14H. doi:10.1086/128286.
  54. ^ a b c Falvey, M.; Rojo, P. M. (Aug 2016). "Application of a Regional Model to Astronomical Site Testing in Western Antarctica". Theoretical and Applied Climatology. 125 (3–4): 841. arXiv:1605.07231. Bibcode:2016ThApC.125..841F. doi:10.1007/s00704-016-1794-x.
  55. ^ "Parameters". Sky quality. Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias • IAC.
  56. ^ a b c Cortés, J. R. (2011). "The Impact Of The Altiplanic Winter On ALMA's Observing Conditions At Llano De Chajnantor". Revista Mexicana de Astronomia y Astrofisica Conference Series. 41: 63. Bibcode:2011RMxAC..41...63C.
  57. ^ a b Steiger, Walter R.; Little, John W. (1958). "On the Feasibility of a Solar Observatory in the Hawaiian Islands". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 70 (417): 556. Bibcode:1958PASP...70..556S. doi:10.1086/127295.
  58. ^ Hartley, M.; McInnes, B.; Smith, F. G. (1981). "Microthermal Fluctuations and Their Relation to Seeing Conditions at Roque de los Muchachos Obsrvatory, La Palma". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 22 (3): 272. Bibcode:1981QJRAS..22..272H.
  59. ^ a b Bi, Cuicui; Qing, Chun; Qian, Xianmei; Zhu, Wenyue; Luo, Tao; Li, Xuebin; Cui, Shengcheng; Weng, Ningquan (Jan 2024). "Astroclimatic parameters characterization at lenghu site with ERA5 products". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 527 (3): 4616–4631. doi:10.1093/mnras/stad3414.
  60. ^ a b c d Stock, Jurgen (1963). J. Rösch (ed.). "Procedure for Location of Astronomical Observatory Sites". Proc IAU Symp. 19 le Choix des Sites d'Observation Astronomiques: 35.
  61. ^ McCord, T. B.; Clark, R. N. (Aug 1979). "Atmospheric extinction 0.65-2.50 µm above Mauna Kea". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 91 (542): 571–576. Bibcode:1979PASP...91..571M. doi:10.1086/130538.
  62. ^ a b Taylor, Violet A.; Jansen, R. A.; Windhorst, R. A. (Aug 2004). "Observing Conditions at Mount Graham: Vatican Advanced Technology Telescope UBVR Sky Surface Brightness and Seeing Measurements from 1999 through 2003". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 116 (822): 762–77. arXiv:astro-ph/0406495. Bibcode:2004PASP..116..762T. doi:10.1086/422929.
  63. ^ a b c d McInnes, B. (1981). "Site Testing on Hawaii Madeira and the Canary-Islands". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 22: 266–271. Bibcode:1981QJRAS..22..266M.
  64. ^ a b c d e Brandt, P. N.; Wöhl, H. (May 1982). "Solar site-testing campaign of JOSO on the Canary Islands in 1979". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 109 (1): 77–89. Bibcode:1982A&A...109...77B.
  65. ^ a b c d e Lloyd, James P. (2004). "Optical turbulence in the Antarctic atmosphere". Proc. SPIE. doi:10.1117/12.552226.
  66. ^ a b c d e f Aksaker, N.; Yerli, S. K.; Erdogan, M. A.; Kurt, Z.; Kaba, K.; Bayazit, M.; Yesilyaprak, C. (2020). "Global Site Selection for Astronomy". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 493 (1): 1204. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa201.
  67. ^ a b c d e Bely, Pierre-Yves (Jun 1987). "Weather and Seeing on Mauna Kea". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 99: 560–570. Bibcode:1987PASP...99..560B. doi:10.1086/132018.
  68. ^ Turchi, A.; Masciadri, E.; Fini, L. (2016). "Forecasts of the atmospherical parameters close to the ground at the LBT site in the context of the ALTA project". In Marchetti, Enrico; Close, Laird M.; Véran, Jean-Pierre (eds.). Adaptive Optics Systems V. Vol. 9909. arXiv:1609.00237. doi:10.1117/12.2231273.
  69. ^ a b c d Verdoni, A.; Denker, C. (Jul 2007). "The Local Seeing Environment at Big Bear Solar Observatory". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 119 (857): 793–804. doi:10.1086/520773. JSTOR 10.1086/520773.
  70. ^ Sauvage, J.-F.; Fusco, T.; Guesalaga, A.; Wizinowitch, P.; et al. (2015). "Low Wind Effect, the main limitation of the SPHERE instrument". Adaptive Optics for Extremely Large Telescopes 4 (Ao4Elt4) – Conference Proceedings. 1 (1). Bibcode:2015aoel.confE...9S. doi:10.20353/K3T4CP1131541.
  71. ^ Vievard, S.; Bos, S. P.; Cassaing, F.; Ceau, A.; et al. (2019). "Overview of focal plane wavefront sensors to correct for the low wind effect on SUBARU/SCExAO". Adaptive Optics for Extremely Large Telescopes 6 – Conference Proceedings. arXiv:1912.10179. Bibcode:2019arXiv191210179V.
  72. ^ Vievard, S.; Bos, S. P.; Cassaing, F.; Currie, T.; et al. (2020). "Focal plane wavefront sensing on SUBARU/SCExAO". In Schmidt, Dirk; Schreiber, Laura; Vernet, Elise (eds.). Proc. SPIE 11448, Adaptive Optics Systems VII. Vol. 11448. SPIE. p. 255. arXiv:2012.12417. Bibcode:2020SPIE11448E..6DV. doi:10.1117/12.2562787. ISBN 978-1-5106-3683-5. 114486D.
  73. ^ PricePeters67[citation not found]
  74. ^ Larsen, Jon (2019). On the Trail of Stardust. Voyageur Press. ISBN 9780760364581.
  75. ^ a b Buton, C.; Copin, Y.; Aldering, G.; Antilogus, P.; et al. (2013). "Atmospheric extinction properties above Mauna Kea from the Nearby Supernova Factory spectro-photometric data set". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 549. A8. arXiv:1210.2619. Bibcode:2013A&A...549A...8B. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201219834.
  76. ^ a b Boffin, Henri M. J. (2016). "Lucky Imaging in Astronomy". In Hussain, Gaitee; Berger, Jean-Philippe; Schmidtobreick, Linda (eds.). Astronomy at High Angular Resolution. Switzerland: Springer International Publishing. ISBN 978-3-319-39737-5.
  77. ^ a b c Popowicz, Adam; Radlak Krystian; Bernacki Krzysztof; Orlov Valeri (2017). "Review of Image Quality Measures for Solar Imaging". Solar Physics. 292 (12): 187. arXiv:1709.09458. Bibcode:2017SoPh..292..187P. doi:10.1007/s11207-017-1211-3.
  78. ^ a b Fried, David L. (1994). "Atmospheric Turbulence Optical Effects: Understanding the Adaptive-Optics Implications". In Alloin, D. M.; Mariotti, J.-M. (eds.). Adaptive Optics for Astronomy. Vol. 423. p. 25. Bibcode:1994ASIC..423...25F. doi:10.1007/978-94-015-8265-0_2 (inactive 4 Nov 2024).{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  79. ^ a b Ridgway, S. T. (1994). The Impact Of Adaptive Optics On Focal Plane Instrumentation. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.
  80. ^ Follette, Katherine B. (2023). "An Introduction to High Contrast Differential Imaging of Exoplanets and Disks". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 135 (1051): 1051. arXiv:2308.01354. Bibcode:2023PASP..135i3001F. doi:10.1088/1538-3873/aceb31.
  81. ^ a b Roddier, F. (1994). "The Problematic of Adaptive Optics Design". In Alloin, D. M.; Mariotti, J.-M. (eds.). Adaptive Optics for Astronomy. p. 89.
  82. ^ a b Turchi, A.; Masciadri, E.; Fini, L. (2017). "Forecasting surface-layer atmospheric parameters at the Large Binocular Telescope site". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 466 (2): 1925–1943. doi:10.1093/mnras/stw2863.
  83. ^ a b Cherubini, T.; Businger, S.; Lyman, R.; Chun, M. (Apr 2008). "Modeling Optical Turbulence and Seeing over Mauna Kea". Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology. 47 (4): 1140. Bibcode:2008JApMC..47.1140C. doi:10.1175/2007JAMC1487.1.
  84. ^ Hagelin, S.; Masciadri, E.; Lascaux, F. (2010). "Wind speed vertical distribution at Mt. Graham". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 407 (4): 2230–2240. arXiv:1005.5250. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2010.17102.x.
  85. ^ a b c d e f Lyman, R.; Cherubini, T.; Businger, S. (2020). "Forecasting seeing for the Maunakea Observatories". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 496 (4): 4734–748. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa1787.
  86. ^ Maud, L. T.; Asaki, Y.; Nagai, H.; Tsukui, T.; Hirota, A.; Fomalont, E. B.; Dent, W. R. F.; Takahashi, S.; Phillips, N. (2023). "ALMA High-frequency Long-baseline Campaign in 2019: Band 9 and 10 In-band and Band-to-band Observations Using ALMA's Longest Baselines". The Astrophysical Journal Supplement Series. 267 (2): 24. doi:10.3847/1538-4365/acd6f1.
  87. ^ Tremblin, P.; Schneider, N.; Minier, V.; Durand, G. Al.; Urban, J. (2012). "Worldwide site comparison for submillimetre astronomy". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 548. A65. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201220420. S2CID 118591983.
  88. ^ a b c Whiteman, C. David (2000). Mountain Meteorology: fundamentals and applications. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513271-8.
  89. ^ a b c Smith, Ronald B. (2019). "100 Years of Progress on Mountain Meteorology". Research Meteorological Monographs. 59 (1): 20.1.
  90. ^ Otarola, A. C.; Querel R.; Kerber F. (2011). "Precipitable Water Vapor: Considerations on the water vapor scale height, dry bias of the radiosonde humidity sensors, and spatial and temporal variability of the humidity field". arXiv:1103.3025 [astro-ph.IM].
  91. ^ a b Ren, Diandong; Lynch, Mervyn J. (2024). "Changes in Global Aviation Turbulence in the Remote Sensing Era (1979-2018)". Remote Sensing. 16 (11): 2038. Bibcode:2024RemS...16.2038R. doi:10.3390/rs16112038.
  92. ^ a b c d e Cherubini, T.; Businger, S.; Lyman, R. (Dec 2008). "Modeling Optical Turbulence and Seeing over Mauna Kea: Verification and Algorithm Refinement". Journal of Applied Meteorology and Climatology. 47 (12): 3033–043. Bibcode:2008JApMC..47.3033C. doi:10.1175/2008JAMC1839.1.
  93. ^ a b c Storer, Luke N.; Williams, Paul D.; Gill, Philip G. (2019). "Aviation Turbulence: Dynamics, Forecasting, and Response to Climate Change". Pure and Applied Geophysics. 176 (5): 2081–095. Bibcode:2019PApGe.176.2081S. doi:10.1007/s00024-018-1822-0.
  94. ^ a b c Ando, H.; Noguchi, T.; Nakagiri, M.; Miyashita, A.; Yamashita, Y.; Nariai, K.; Tanabe, H. (1989). "Evaluation of the JNLT Site". Astrophysics and Space Science. 160 (1–2): 183–89. doi:10.1007/BF00642769. S2CID 121201443.
  95. ^ a b Socas-Navarro, J.; Beckers, J.; Brandt, P.; Briggs, J.; et al. (2005). "Solar Site Survey for the Advanced Technology Solar Telescope. I. Analysis of the Seeing Data". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 117 (837): 1296. arXiv:astro-ph/0508690. Bibcode:2005PASP..117.1296S. doi:10.1086/496939.
  96. ^ a b c Nosov, V. V.; Lukin, V. P.; Nosov, E. V.; Torgaev, A. V.; Afanas'ev, V. L.; Balega, Yu. U.; Vlasyuk, V. V.; Panchuk, V. E.; Yakopov, G. V. (2019). "Astroclimate Studies in the Special Astrophysics Observatory of the Russian Academy of Sciences". Atmospheric and Oceanic Optics. 32 (1): 8. doi:10.1134/S1024856019010111.
  97. ^ De Young, D. S.; Charles, R. D. (Dec 1995). "Numerical Simulation of Airflow Over Potential Telescope Sites". Astronomical Journal. 110: 3107. Bibcode:1995AJ....110.3107D. doi:10.1086/117751.
  98. ^ Hickson, P. (18 Mar 2017). TMT image quality at Mauna Kea and La Palma (PDF) (Report). Retrieved 10 Nov 2024.
  99. ^ Redfern, R. M. (1991). "High-resolution imaging in La Palma". Vistas in Astronomy. 34 (2): 201–233. Bibcode:1991VA.....34..201R. doi:10.1016/0083-6656(91)90003-B.
  100. ^ a b Lakićević, Maša; Kimeswenger, Stefan; Noll, Stefan; Kausch, Wolfgang; Unterguggenberger, Stefanie; Kerber, Florian (2016). "Atmospheric conditions at Cerro Armazones derived from astronomical data". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 588: 32. arXiv:1602.00319. Bibcode:2016A&A...588A..32L. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201527973.
  101. ^ a b c d McAlister, H. A. (1995). Site Selection for the CHARA Array (PDF) (Technical report). Center for High Angular Resolution Astronomy (CHARA). No. 13.
  102. ^ Thomas-Osip, J. E. (2007). "GMT Site Evaluation at Las Campanas Observatory" (PDF). Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica. Serie de Conferencias. 31: 18–24. Retrieved 15 Nov 2024.
  103. ^ Young, C. A. (Feb 1886). "Large telescopes v. small". Observatory. 9 (107): 92–94. Bibcode:1886Obs.....9...92Y.
  104. ^ Dyck, H. M.; Howell, R. R. (Oct 1983). "Seeing Measurements at Mauna Kea from Infrared Speckle Interferometry". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 95 (572): 786–91. Bibcode:1983PASP...95..786D. doi:10.1086/131255.
  105. ^ Harlan, E. A.; Walker, Merle F. (1965). "A Star-Trail Telescope for Asrronomical Site-Testing". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 77 (457): 246. Bibcode:1965PASP...77..246H. doi:10.1086/128210.
  106. ^ Sarazin, M.; Roddier, F. (1990). "The ESO differential image motion monitor". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 227: 294.
  107. ^ a b Beckers, J. M. (2001). "A Seeing Monitor for Solar and Other Extended Object Observations". Experimental Astronomy. 12 (1): 1. Bibcode:2001ExA....12....1B. doi:10.1023/A:1015712720291.
  108. ^ a b c d Barletti, R.; Ceppatelli, G.; Paternò, L.; Righini, A.; Speroni, N. (Feb 1977). "Astronomical site testing with balloon borne radiosondes: Results about atmospheric turbulence, solar seeing and stellar scintillation". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 54 (3): 649–659. Bibcode:1977A&A....54..649B. Retrieved 14 Nov 2024.
  109. ^ Carrasco, E.; Avila, R.; Carraminana, A. (Jan 2005). "High-Altitude Wind Velocity at Sierra Negra ad San Pedro Martir". Pub. Astron. Soc. Pacific. 117: 104.
  110. ^ a b Chen, Li-Hui; Liu, Zhong; Chen, Dong (2019). "Climatological analysis of the seeing at Fuxian Solar Observatory". Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics. 19 (1): 15. Bibcode:2019RAA....19...15C. doi:10.1088/1674-4527/19/1/15.
  111. ^ Gaviola, E. (1948). "On shadow bands at total eclipses of the sun". Popular Astronomy. 56: 353–359. Bibcode:1948PA.....56..353G.
  112. ^ Nightingale, N. S.; Buscher, D. F. (1991). "Interferometric seeing measurements at the La Palma Observatory". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 251 (1): 155–166. Bibcode:1991MNRAS.251..155N. doi:10.1093/mnras/251.1.155. S2CID 119984334.
  113. ^ a b c Bely, Pierre-Yves (1984). "Forecasting Seeing: A First Step". Proceedings. Workshop on Site Testing for Future Large Telescopes, La Silla, Chile, October 4–6, 1983. p. 55. Bibcode:1984ESOC...18...55B. S2CID 238871261.
  114. ^ a b Widseth, Christopher C.; Morss, Dean A. (1999). "Airborne Verification of Atmospheric Turbulence Using The Richardson Number". National Weather Digest. 123 (4): 38.
  115. ^ a b Denker, C.; Dineva, E.; Balthasar, H.; Verma, M.; Kuckein, C.; Diercke, A.; González Manrique, S. J. (2018). "Image Quality in High-resolution and High-cadence Solar Imaging". Solar Physics. 293 (3). #44. arXiv:1802.00760. doi:10.1007/s11207-018-1261-1.
  116. ^ a b Denker, Carsten; Strassmeier, Klaus G. (2008). "Solar Physics and the Solar-Stellar Connection at Dome C". In Zinnecker, H.; Epchtein, N.; Rauer, H. (eds.). 2nd ARENA Conference: The Astrophysical Science Cases at Dome C. EAS Publications Series. Vol. 33. pp. 97–104. arXiv:0712.1471. Bibcode:2008EAS....33...97D. doi:10.1051/eas:0833014.
  117. ^ Ricort, G.; Aime, C. (1979). "Solar seeing and the statistical properties of the photospheric solar granulation. III - Solar speckle interferometry". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 76: 324–335.
  118. ^ Brandt, P. N.; Mauter, H. A.; Smartt, R. (Dec 1987). "Day-time seeing statistics at Sacramento Peak Observatory". Astronomy and Astrophysics. 188 (1): 163–168. Bibcode:1987A&A...188..163B.
  119. ^ Mariotti83[verification needed]
  120. ^ a b c d Osterbrock, Donald E. (1993). Pauper and Prince. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
  121. ^ Curtiss, R. H. (Dec 1926). "William Joseph Hussey". Science. 64 (1669): 612–614. Bibcode:1926Sci....64..612C. doi:10.1126/science.64.1669.612. PMID 17834470.
  122. ^ a b Brandt, P. N.; Righini, A. (1985). "The JOSO site testing campaigns in the Canary Islands". Vistas in Astronomny. 28 (Part 2): 437–448. doi:10.1016/0083-6656(85)90068-6.
    Brandt, P. N.; Righini, A. (1985). The JOSO site testing campaign: Techniques, results and general considerations (Technical report). LEST Foundation. Bibcode:1985LFTR...11.....B. No. 11.
  123. ^ "Center for High Angular Resolution Astronomy". CHARA. Georgia State University. Retrieved 13 Oct 2024.
  124. ^ ten Brummelaar, T. A.; McAlister, H. A.; Ridgway, S. T.; Bagnuolo Jr., W. G.; et al. (2008). "First results for the CHARA array. II A description of the instrument". The Astrophysical Journal. 628 (1): 453. doi:10.1086/430729.
  125. ^ Hale, George E. (1950). Frontiers in Space. California Institute of Technology.
  126. ^ "A History of Palomar Observatory". Caltech Astronomy Department. California Institute of Technology.
  127. ^ Babcock, Horace W. (1953). "The Possibility of Compensating Astronomical Seeing". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 65 (386): 239. Bibcode:1953PASP...65..229B. doi:10.1086/126606.
  128. ^ Preston, George W. (2004). "Horace Welcome Babcock (1912–2003)". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 116 (817): 290. Bibcode:2004PASP..116..290P. doi:10.1086/382664.
  129. ^ Price67[citation not found]
  130. ^ a b c Morrison, D.; Murphy, R. E.; Cruikshank, D. P.; Sinton, W. M.; Martin, T. Z. (1973). "Evaluation of Mauna Kea, Hawaii, as an Observatory Site". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 85 (505): 255. Bibcode:1973PASP...85..255M. doi:10.1086/129449.
  131. ^ Racine, René (1984). "Astronomical Seeing at Mauna Kea and in Particular at the CFHT". Proceedings of the IAU Colloquium. "Very Large Telescopes, their Instrumentation and Programs", Garching, April 9-12, 1984. Vol. 79. pp. 235–243. doi:10.1017/S0252921100108425. S2CID 126876339.
  132. ^ Neyman, C. (3 Dec 2004) [Revised 1 May 2007]. Atmospheric Parameters for Mauna Kea (PDF) (Report). KPAO – Keck Precision Adaptive Optics. KAON #303. Retrieved 15 Nov 2024.
  133. ^ Denge21[full citation needed]
  134. ^ a b c Price, S.; Pales, J. C. (Oct–Dec 1963). "Mauna Loa Observatory: The first five years". Monthly Weather Review. 91 (10): 665–680. doi:10.1175/1520-0493(1963)091<0665:MLOTFF>2.3.CO;2.
  135. ^ Chun, Mark; Wilson, R.; Avila, R.; Butterley, T.; Aviles, J.-L.; Wier, D.; Benigni, S. (2009). "Mauna Kea ground-layer characterization campaign". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 394 (3): 1121–130. Bibcode:2009MNRAS.394.1121C. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2966.2008.14346.x.
  136. ^ Sprague, Roberta A. (1991). "Measuring the Mountain: The United States Exploring Expedition on Mauna Loa, 1840-1841". Hawaiian Journal of History. 25: 71.
  137. ^ McHugh, J. P.; Jumper, G. Y.; Chun, M. (Dec 2008). "Balloon Thermosonde Measurements over Mauna Kea and Comparison with Seeing Measurements". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 120 (874): 1318–324. Bibcode:2008PASP..120.1318M. doi:10.1086/595871.
  138. ^ "Station list". Integrated Global Radiosonde Archive. National Centers for Environmental Information.
  139. ^ "MaunaKea Weather Center". University of Hawaii.
  140. ^ Panchuk, Vladimir; Afanas'ev, V. L. (2011). "Astroclimate of Northern Caucasus – Myths and Reality". Astrophysics Bulletin. 66 (2): 233. Bibcode:2011AstBu..66..233P. doi:10.1134/S199034131102009X.
  141. ^ a b Shikhovtsev, A. Yu.; Bolbasova, L. A.; Kovadlo, P. G.; Kiselev, A. V. (2020). "Atmospheric parameters of the 6-m Big Telescope Alt-azimuthal site". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 493 (1): 723. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa156.
  142. ^ a b c Keel, William. "Telescopes I've Used – Bolshoi Teleskop Azimutalnyi". Bill Keel's Telescope Life List. University of Alabama. Retrieved 10 Nov 2024.
  143. ^ Mascart, Jean (1912). Impressions et observations dans un voyage a Tenerife (in French). Paris: Flammarion.
  144. ^ "History". About us. Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias • IAC.
  145. ^ a b Sánchez, F. (1985). "Astronomy in the Canary Islands". Vistas in Astronomy. 28 (2): 417. Bibcode:1985VA.....28..417S. doi:10.1016/0083-6656(85)90066-2.
  146. ^ "Francisco Sanchez". www.geoscopio.com.
  147. ^ "Atmospheric pollution". Sky protection. Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias • IAC. Retrieved 13 Oct 2024.
  148. ^ Gaug, Markus; Longo, Alessandro; Bianchi, Stefano; Font, Lluís; Almirante, Sofia; Kornmayer, Harald; Doro, Michele; Hahn, Alexander; Blanch, Oscar; Plastino, Wolfango; Dorner, Daniela (2024). "Detailed analysis of local climate at the CTAO-North site on La Palma from 20 yr of MAGIC weather station data". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 534 (3): 2344. doi:10.1093/mnras/stae2214.
  149. ^ Adriano, Ghedina; Marco, Pedani; de Gurtubai Albar, Garcia (2015). "Atmospheric monitoring at the site of the Telescopio Nazionale Galileo". EPJ Web of Conferences. 89: 02004. Bibcode:2015EPJWC..8902004A. doi:10.1051/epjconf/20158902004.
  150. ^ Wyller, Arne A.; Scharmer, Goran B. (1985). "Sweden's Solar and Stellar Telescope On La Palma". Vistas in Astronomy. 28 (2): 467. Bibcode:1985VA.....28..467W. doi:10.1016/0083-6656(85)90070-4.
  151. ^ Schroter, E. H.; Soltau, D.; Wiehr, E. (1985). "The German Solar Telescope At The Observatorio Del Teide". Vistas in Astronomy. 28 (2): 519. Bibcode:1985VA.....28..519S. doi:10.1016/0083-6656(85)90073-X.
  152. ^ Mein, P.; Rayrole, J. (1985). "THEMIS Solar Telescope". Vistas in Astronomy. 28 (2): 567. Bibcode:1985VA.....28..567M. doi:10.1016/0083-6656(85)90077-7.
  153. ^ Bailey, Solon I. (1904). "The Arequipa Station of the Harvard Observatory". Popular Science Monthly: 510.
  154. ^ Blanco, V. (Feb 1993). "Brief History of the Cerro Tololo Inter-American Observatory". Retrieved 14 Nov 2024.
  155. ^ Donoso, F. (2020). "La Astronomía en Chile hoy". Enfoque. No. 20.
  156. ^ Blanco, V. (2001). "Telescopes, Red Stars, and Chilean Skies". Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics. 39: 1–18. Bibcode:2001ARA&A..39....1B. doi:10.1146/annurev.astro.39.1.1.
  157. ^ Hiscott, L. (23 Nov 2022). "60 Years of Discovery from Cerro Tololo, the Observatory on the 'Edge of the Abyss'".
  158. ^ Edmonson, Frank K. (1998). "The Ford Foundation and the European Southern Observatory". Journal for the History of Astronomy. 29 (4): 309. Bibcode:1998JHA....29..309E. doi:10.1177/002182869802900401.
  159. ^ MacConnell, D. J. (2006). "Homage to Jürgen Stock". Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica. Serie de Conferencias. 25: 73–76. Bibcode:2006RMxAC..25...73M.
  160. ^ Saviane, I.; Leibundgut, B.; Schmidtobreick, L. (2020). "The La Silla Observatory-From Inauguration to the Future". Messenger. 179.
  161. ^ a b Sarazin, M. (1994). "Site Surveys, from Pioneering Times to the VLT Era". Messenger. 76: 12. Bibcode:1994Msngr..76...12S.
  162. ^ Bustos, Ricardo; Delgado, Guillermo; Nyman, Lars-Åke; Radford, Simon (9 Nov 2000). "52 Years of Climatological Data for the Chajnantor Area" (PDF). ALMA Memo. 333.
  163. ^ "Site Study".[dead link]
  164. ^ "Highest Astronomical Observatory". Guinness World Records.
  165. ^ Masciadri, E.; Lascaux, F.; Fini, L. (2013). "MOSE: optical turbulence and atmospherical parameters operational forecast at ESO ground-based sites. I. Overview and atmospherical parameters vertical stratification on [0-20] km". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 436 (3): 1968–1985. arXiv:1309.6775. doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1708.
  166. ^ Lascaux, F.; Masciadri, E.; Fini, L. (2013). "MOSE: operational forecast of the optical turbulence and atmospheric parameters at European Souther Observatory ground-based sites. II. Atmospheric parameters in the surface layer [0-30] m". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 436 (4): 3147–3166. arXiv:1309.6774. doi:10.1093/mnras/stt1803.
  167. ^ Wagner, K.; Ertel, S.; Stone, J.; Leisenring, J.; Apai, D.; Kasper, M.; Absil, O.; Close, L.; Defrere, D.; Guyon, O.; Males, J. (2021). "Imaging low-mass planets within the habitable zones of nearby stars with ground-based mid-infrared imaging". In Shaklan, Stuart B.; Ruane, Garreth J. (eds.). Techniques and Instrumentation for Detection of Exoplanets X. Vol. 11823. p. 16. arXiv:2107.14378. Bibcode:2021SPIE11823E..0GW. doi:10.1117/12.2596413. ISBN 978-1-5106-4484-7.
  168. ^ "Home". ALTA Center. INAF – Arcetri Astrophysical Observatory. Retrieved 13 Aug 2024.
  169. ^ Lawrence, J. S.; Ashley, M. C. B.; Burton, M. G.; Gillingham, P. R.; McGrath, A.; Haynes, R.; Sanders, W.; Storey, J. W. V. (2010). "Dome C Site Testing: Implications for Science and Technology of Future Telescopes". European Astronomical Society Publications Series. 3rd ARENA Conference: An Astronomical Observatory at CONCORDIA (Dome C, Antarctica). Vol. 40. pp. 33–43. doi:10.1051/eas/1040004.
  170. ^ a b Storey, J. W. V. (Aug 2012). "Review of Antarctic astronomy". Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union. Symposium S288: Astrophysics from Antarctica. Vol. 288. pp. 1–5. doi:10.1017/S1743921312016596.
  171. ^ a b Yang, H.; Kulesa, C. A.; Walker, Tuthill; Yang, J.; et al. (2010). "Exceptional Terahertz Transparency and Stability above Dome A, Antarctica". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 122 (890): 490. Bibcode:2010PASP..122..490Y. doi:10.1086/652276.
  172. ^ Lawrence, J. S. (2004). "Infrared and Submillimeter Atmospheric Characteristics of High Antarctic Plateau Sites". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 116 (819): 482. Bibcode:2004PASP..116..482L. doi:10.1086/420757.
  173. ^ Ishii, S.; Seta, M.; Nakai, N.; Nagai, S.; Miyagawa, N.; Yamauchi, A.; Motoyama, H.; Taguchi, M. (2010). "Site testing at Dome Fuji for submillimeter and terahertz astronomy: 220 GHz atmospheric-transparency". Polar Science. 3 (4): 213. Bibcode:2010PolSc...3..213I. doi:10.1016/j.polar.2009.08.001.
  174. ^ Marks, R. D. (2002). "Astronomical seeing from the summits of the Antarctic Plateau". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 385: 328. arXiv:astro-ph/0112068. Bibcode:2002A&A...385..328M. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20020132.
  175. ^ Aristidi, E.; Agabi, A.; Fossat, E.; Azouit, M.; Martin, F.; Sadibekova, T.; Travouillon, T.; Vernin, J.; Ziad, A. (2005). "Site testing in summer at Dome C, Antarctica". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 444 (2): 651-59. arXiv:astro-ph/0507475. Bibcode:2005A&A...444..651A. doi:10.1051/0004-6361:20053529.
  176. ^ Okita, H.; Ichikawa, T.; Ashley, M. C. B.; Takato, Motoyama H. (2013). "Excellent daytime seeing at Dome Fuji on the Antarctic plateau". Astronomy & Astrophysics. 554: L5. arXiv:1305.5109. Bibcode:2013A&A...554L...5O. doi:10.1051/0004-6361/201321937.
  177. ^ Aristidi, E.; Vernin, J.; Fossat, E.; Schmider, F.-X.; et al. (Dec 2015). "Monitoring the optical turbulence in the surface layer at Dome C, Antarctica, with sonic anemometers". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 454 (4): 4304. doi:10.1093/mnras/stv2273.
  178. ^ Daban, Jean-Baptiste; Gouvret, Carole; Guillot, Tristan; Agabi, Abdelkrim; et al. (Jul 2010). "ASTEP 400: a telescope designed for exoplanet transit detection from Dome C". Proceedings of SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering. Ground-based and Airborne Telescopes III. Vol. 7733. 77334T. Bibcode:2010SPIE.7733E..4TD. doi:10.1117/12.854946.
  179. ^ Guillot, T. L.; Agabi, Abe A.; Rivet, J.-P.; Daban, J.-B.; et al. (Sep 2015). "Thermalizing a telescope in Antarctica – analysis of ASTEP observations". Astronomische Nachrichten [Astronomical Notes]. 336 (7): 638–656. doi:10.1002/asna.201512174.
  180. ^ Fossat, E. (2003). "Visible Astronomy as well? Why not!". Memorie della Società Astronomica Italiana Supplement. 2: 139. Bibcode:2003MSAIS...2..139F. S2CID 56421936.
  181. ^ Li, X.; Yuan, X.; Gu, B.; Yang, S.; Li, Z.; Du, F. (2019). "Chinese Antarctic Astronomical Optical Telescopes". Revista Mexicana de Astronomía y Astrofísica. Serie de Conferencias. 51: 135–138. doi:10.22201/ia.14052059p.2019.51.23.
  182. ^ Kenyon, S. L.; Storey, J. W. V. (2006). "A Review of Optical Sky Brightness and Extinction at Dome C, Antarctica". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 118 (841): 489. arXiv:astro-ph/0511510. Bibcode:2006PASP..118..489K. doi:10.1086/499631.
  183. ^ Kenyon, S. L.; Lawrence, J. S.; Ashley, M. C. B.; Storey, J. W. V.; Tokovnin, A.; Fossat, E. (Jun 2006). "Atmospheric Scintillation at Dome C, Antarctica: Implications for Photometry and Astrometry". Publications of the Astronomical Society of the Pacific. 118 (844): 924-32. arXiv:astro-ph/0604538. Bibcode:2006PASP..118..924K. doi:10.1086/505409.
  184. ^ Yang, Xu; Shang, Zhaohui; Hu, Keliang; Hu, Yi; Ma, Bin; Wang, Yongjiang; Cao, Zihuang; Ashley, Michael C. B.; Wang, Wei (2021). "Cloud cover and aurora contamination at dome a in 2017 from KLCAM". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 501 (3): 3614. doi:10.1093/mnras/staa3824.
  185. ^ a b Feng, L.; Hao, J.-X.; Cao, Z.-H.; Bai, J.-M.; et al. (2020). "Cao Site Test campaign for the Large Optical/infrared Telescope of China: overview". Research in Astronomy and Astrophysics. 20 (6): 80. doi:10.1088/1674-4527/20/6/80.
  186. ^ "Home page of Specola Solare Ticinese".
  187. ^ "Big Bear Solar Observatory". www.bbso.njit.edu.
  188. ^ "Baikal Astrophysical Observatory".
  189. ^ "Udaipur Solar Observatory".

Sources

[edit]
  • Sheehan, William (1988). Planets and Perception: telescopic views and interpretations, 1609-1909. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. ISBN 978-0-8165-1059-7.

Further reading

[edit]