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Cycling in China

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Cyclists at a park in Shenzhen. Many ride yellow bikes owned by Ofo, a popular bike-sharing service.

Cycling is a common form of transportation and recreation in China, although use of bicycles has significantly declined since the 1970s and 1980s, when the country was nicknamed the "Kingdom of Bicycles" (自行车王国; Zìxíngchē wángguó). Although some early velocipedes were introduced to China from Europe beginning in the 1860s, cycling remained limited to a relatively small group of westerners residing in the country until the first decade of the 20th century, where bicycles began seeing limited use in Shanghai and other metropolitan centers. Steadily rising in popularity among the emerging middle class during the 1920s and 1930s, they became commonplace during the Maoist era as factories began producing large numbers of bicycles, and alternatives such as rickshaws and pedicabs fell out of use. Previously limited by a rationing system and high prices, bicycles became generally available to the working class following economic reforms in the late 1970s and 1980s. Urban redevelopment, the abolition of the work unit system and the increasing availability of private automobiles and mass transit have significantly reduced the use of bicycles by commuters. While 40% of Shanghai workers commuted via bicycle in 2000, only 18.1% did so by 2010. Cycling is generally seen as less prestigious than other forms of transportation, and is increasingly associated with older generations and the Mao era.

China remains the largest producer and consumer of electric bikes. Bicycle-sharing systems have proliferated across the country over the course of the 2010s, represented both by public government-sponsored ventures and private companies such as Ofo and Mobike. Cycle sport was traditionally underrepresented in China on an international level, although Chinese teams saw increasing success at the Olympic Games during the early 21st century, seeing the first gold medal in the sport at the 2016 Summer Olympics. Sport cycling is managed by the Chinese Cycling Association, an organization managed de facto by the Cycling Department of the General Administration of Sport's National Cycling and Fencing Management Center.

History

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Early bicycles and similar velocipede predecessors (such as the draisienne) were introduced to China from Europe by the late 1860s, with their use reported in an 1868 issue of the Shanghai Xinbao. Cycling in China was mainly limited to westerners during the 19th century; bicycles' cost and difficulty of use on bumpy roads discouraged Chinese consumers, and the local elite shunned them in favor of rickshaws and the traditional sedan chair. They found some use among western missionaries, who found them useful for navigating the rural countryside.[1][2][3]

Emergence

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A Chinese newspaper cartoon of a group of six women in traditional dress riding bicycles
Female bicyclists, depicted in a 1909–1910 issue of Tuhua Ribao

Shanghai, highly connected to the west and home to the Shanghai International Settlement, emerged as an early center of cycling. The Tongchang Vehicle Company, the first bike shop in China, opened in the city in 1897. Five or six more shops were opened in the Shanghai foreign concessions over the following three years, and some rickshaw and carriage shops began to additionally offer bicycle parts and repairs. Students and postal workers in Shanghai were prominent early adopters of cycling, and the practice became a prominent social symbol of modernity.[4][5] Although spreading to major cities such as Chengdu and Guangzhou before 1910, they remained an imported luxury rare in comparison to other forms of other transportation. A 1918 traffic survey of an intersection in the Shanghai International Settlement recorded 14,663 rickshaws, 1,836 automobiles, 942 horse-drawn carriages, and 772 bicycles.[6]

Cycling rose in popularity during the 1920s and 1930s. Although rickshaws remained the dominant form of transportation in cities, cycling was seen as a practical choice for the emerging middle class, although prohibitively expensive for peasants and the urban working class. They saw increasing use outside of cities during the 1920s, mainly by merchants, clerks, and government workers. Bicycles continued to be largely imported from the United Kingdom and Germany, although they were joined by domestically produced models such as the Tongchang Company's Feiren.[7][8] Intense gasoline shortages during the Second Sino-Japanese War saw the rise of the pedicab, a pedal-powered version of the rickshaw which displaced both automobiles and traditional foot-driven rickshaws. Bicycle use also increased during the war; between 1929 and 1948, bicycle ownership in Shanghai increased from around 40,000 to 230,000.[9][8] In the Japanese-occupied territories, the industrialist Kojima Kazusaburô founded three bicycle factories; these formed the core of China's domestic bicycle after the war.[10]

Proliferation

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A black and white photo of a street in China in the 1970s. Cyclists bike past a large building with Big Character Posters and a portrait of Mao Zedong
Cyclists bike past a portrait of Mao Zedong in Beijing, 1976

During the Maoist era, rickshaws fell out of use, and pedicab use became mainly restricted to freight. Cycling emerged as the main form of private transportation, and bicycle production would continue to rise for several decades after the war. China produced around 80,000 bicycles a year in 1952; this increased tenfold by 1957, and tenfold again to 8,540,000 in 1978.[11] Cycling fit the urban development goals of the communist government, which emphasized short commutes and widely available public transportation, but lacked the funding to build mass transit systems. Beijing began including bike lanes alongside its major roads in 1965, separated from the motor lanes by median strips.[12][13]

Although large numbers of bicycle brands existed, Feige, Yongjiu, and Fenghuang emerged as the most prominent and prestigious. Bicycles were accessible to consumers, but relatively difficult to obtain; a Feige-brand bicycle cost 2 months wages on an average worker's salary, and the wait-lists for ration tickets could stretch for multiple years. Despite this, they proliferated massively in cities, encouraged by subsidies for cyclist commuters and the designation of bike lanes on major roads. In 1978, there were 102.3 bicycles for every 100 households in urban areas.[11][14] Rates were much lower in rural countryside and varied greatly depending on region, averaging around 30.7 bicycles per 100 households. Bicycle manufactures began producing heavy-duty bicycles suitable in rural areas, which were nicknamed "little donkeys" by farmers.[11][15]

A very large number of bicycles parked along a street in Shanghai
Bicycles in Shanghai in 1982

In reference the proliferation of cycling, China was nicknamed the "Kingdom of Bicycles" (自行车王国; Zìxíngchē wángguó),[15] while bicycles were considered one of the "three rounds" (三转; Sānzhuǎn) desired by Chinese households, alongside wristwatches and sewing machines.[16][14] The work unit system led to most workers living within a relatively short distance of both their workplaces and recreational spaces.[17] Bicycle ownership continued to increase following the transition to a free-market economy in the late 1970s and 1980s, and production reached 41,401,000 per year in 1988. Rationing of bikes was lifted and prices fell dramatically. By 1990, ownership rates increased to 118.3 per 100 households in rural areas and 188.6 per 100 household in cities. They were used by many more commuters than buses, which were generally overcrowded; alternatives such as taxis and motorcycles were prohibitively expensive to most workers.[14][18] In 1986, 63% of Beijing residents commuted to work by bike.[19]

Decline

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Schoolchildren biking in Pinghe County, Fujian

China entered a second round of economic reforms in the 1990s, with the promotion of automobiles among the chief industrial priorities. Cycling declined in favor of public transportation, motorcycles, and private cars. Losing its previous prestige, it became increasingly associated with older generations and the Mao era. Private vehicle ownership became a prestigious but accessible option to the middle class by the 2000s, leading to municipal governments prioritizing car infrastructure. Many cities restricted or eliminated their previous bike lanes in order to reduce traffic congestion, with bike use banned entirely on roadways in some city centers. Bicycle lots were converted into parking lots or recreational spaces. Small-scale bicycle repair shops diminished in favor of larger and more expensive specialty shops.[20][21][22]

While 40% of Shanghai workers commuted via bicycle in 2000, only 18.1% did so by 2010. Motorcycles and minibusses emerged as the dominant form of transportation in rural areas in response to expansive highway construction. Despite the general decline of cycling, electric bikes gained popularity over the course of the 1990s and 2000s.[20][21] Urban redevelopment led to many citizens living far enough from their workplaces to make commuting by bike impractical.[20] Areas in city centers with easy access to public transportation have become increasingly expensive, resulting in many working-class people living in government-subsidized housing on the outskirts of the cities.[22]

Infrastructure and use

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A car parked in a bike lane adjacent to a busy street in Shanghai. The lane is separated from the street by a fence. A sticker on the car reads "Embrace the world expo while observing the law, Driving with courtesy for a good city image."
A car parked in a bike lane in Shanghai

Cycling infrastructure in China is scarce and often low-quality, with automobile transport taking priority in major cities. However, traffic congestion in cities keeps cycling a viable alternative. Newly developed suburbs generally lack bike lanes, and existing bike lanes in cities are often used for parking or converted into extra motor lanes. Many bus and train stations lack bike parking. Although bikes are allowed to be parked at bus stops, they generally lack parking racks, rain shields, or anti-theft measures. Bicycle theft is common, especially for more expensive vehicles. As of 2007, an estimated 4 million bicycles are stolen in China every year.[23]

Carrier tricycles are common. In rural environments, they are used to transport tools to the field or produce to markets. In urban areas, they see use as delivery vehicles and as mobile food stands and repair shops. They are also frequently used by city maintenance teams and trash collectors.[24]

E-bikes

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China is both the dominant producer and consumer of electric bicycles (e-bikes).[20] Around 30,000,000 e-bikes are sold every year in China, around four times the combined sales of the rest of the world. These generally use lead-acid batteries, although models using lithium-ion batteries have gained currency since the mid-2010s.[25] In some cities, informal and unauthorized e-bike taxis are prevalent.[26]

Bike-sharing systems

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A line of green public bicycles next to a kiosk before a large historic gate
Public bicycles at Gongchen Gate in Shangqiu, Henan

Bicycle-sharing systems have emerged in China as a means to solve the "last kilometer problem" – the gap between commuters' destinations and the nearest available public transit station. Hangzhou Public Bicycle, China's first bike-sharing system, was organized in 2008. Similar systems, both public and private, were created in other cities and counties over the following years. These initially used designated docking systems and payable with coin or credit card. Dockless systems using mobile apps and online payment processors were introduced in 2014, leading to rapid expansion of private bike-share systems by companies in favor of prior government-sponsored services.[27][28] By 2018, Beijing had 2.4 million bicycles in their bike-share fleets and 11 million registered users of bike-sharing apps — slightly under half the city's population.[29] Most major cities maintain their own government-sponsored bike-sharing systems, several with fleets measuring in the tens of thousands of vehicles.[23]

In the mid-2010s, a bike-sharing market bubble resulted in a significant oversupply of bicycles in urban centers. Venture capital funds began to massively invest in bicycle startups, most prominently Ofo and Mobike, although dozens of smaller competitor apps emerged. Ofo and Mobike dominate the market share for bicycles; by early 2018, there was an estimated 23 million public bicycles in China, of which 95% were part of Ofo or Mobike's fleets.[27][28]

Cycle sport

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Before 1998, professional cycling in China was managed by the Cycling and Motorcycling Management Center of the Sports Ministry. The ministry was reformed into the General Administration of Sport (GAS) in 1998. In the early 2000s, the GAS established National Cycling and Fencing Management Center to manage professional cycling, fencing, triathlon, modern pentathlon, and equestrian sports. Two divisions, the Cycling Department and the National Cycling Team, exist under the center. Due to the shared administration and resources of the five sports under a common body, cycling is less emphasized by the GAS than other Olympic sports. The Cycling Department and national team are both frequently understaffed.[30] The Chinese Bicycle Association estimates that the majority of sport bikers in China are mountain bikers, with a smaller portion being road bikers.[31] In 2010, the central government organized the Chinese Cycling Association (CCA), a national cycle sport governing body and member of the Union Cycliste Internationale (UCI). Although ostensibly part of the Ministry of Civil Affairs, it is de facto managed by the GAS's Cycling Department. Most provinces and autonomous regions have also established regional cycling teams and management centers, not directly affiliated with the CCA. These teams compete against each other at a variety of domestic competitions, most notably the National Games.[32]

International competition

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A photo of Zhong Tianshi, dressed in red, track cycling at a race
Zhong Tianshi, one of China's first Olympic gold medalists in cycling, at the 2020 UCI Track World Championships

The Netherlands-born track cyclist Howard Wing was recruited to the 1936 Chinese Olympic team, becoming the first athlete to represent China in cycling at an international level. He went on to represent China at eight world championships and the 1948 Summer Olympics. However, he never won a medal.[33][34] China did not participate again in cycling at the Olympics until the 1984 games. Its first medal in cycling was won by Jiang Cuihua in the women's track time trial at the 2000 games.[33][35][36]

Although historically underrepresented in cycle sports, Chinese teams began to see greater success in internal competition in the years following the CCA's founding. Chinese athletes won three medals in cycling at the 2012 Summer Olympics. At the 2016 Summer Olympics, the Chinese women's cycling team won the country's first gold medal in cycling in the women's team sprint.[32][37]

BMX

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BMX (bicycle motorcross) was introduced to China in the early 2000s, with both amateur and semiprofessional BMX athletes riding in major metropolitan centers such as Beijing, Guangzhou, and Shanghai, before spreading to smaller cities. BMX racing was included within the National Games in 2005 and the 2008 Beijing Olympics, gaining the sport its first widespread publicity in China.[38] Freestyle was more obscure until it was introduced as an Olympic sport in the leadup to the 2020 Summer Olympics. The GAS organized a national freestyle BMX team in January 2018, and established a training center for the sport in Puyang.[39] At the 2024 Summer Olympics, Deng Yawen won China's first Olympic medal in BMX, winning gold in the women's BMX freestyle.[40]

References

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  1. ^ Lusk 2012, p. 21.
  2. ^ Tao 2023, pp. 408–409.
  3. ^ Rhoads 2012, pp. 95–97.
  4. ^ Tao 2013, p. 10.
  5. ^ Rhoads 2012, pp. 97–98.
  6. ^ Rhoads 2012, pp. 98–99.
  7. ^ Rhoads 2012, pp. 100–103.
  8. ^ a b Thomason 2021, p. 452.
  9. ^ Rhoads 2012, pp. 103–104.
  10. ^ Rhoads 2012, pp. 105–106.
  11. ^ a b c Rhoads 2012, pp. 106–109.
  12. ^ Lusk 2012, p. 24.
  13. ^ Norcliffe 2011, p. 237.
  14. ^ a b c Thomason 2021, pp. 452–453.
  15. ^ a b Tao 2023, p. 413.
  16. ^ Larmer 2017.
  17. ^ Yang et al. 2015, p. 176.
  18. ^ Rhoads 2012, pp. 109–110.
  19. ^ Christensen 2017, p. 16.
  20. ^ a b c d Rhoads 2012, pp. 110–114.
  21. ^ a b Tao 2023, pp. 414–415.
  22. ^ a b Zhang 2022, pp. 716–717.
  23. ^ a b Yang et al. 2015, pp. 177–180.
  24. ^ Norcliffe 2011, p. 238.
  25. ^ Zuev, Tyfield & Urry 2019, pp. 19–21.
  26. ^ Zuev, Tyfield & Urry 2019, p. 24.
  27. ^ a b Tao 2023, pp. 415–416.
  28. ^ a b Zhang 2022, pp. 717–718.
  29. ^ Campbell 2018, p. 45.
  30. ^ Zheng 2016, pp. 588–589.
  31. ^ Christensen 2017, p. 9.
  32. ^ a b Zheng 2016, pp. 589–591.
  33. ^ a b Zheng 2016, pp. 586–587.
  34. ^ "Howard Wing". Olympedia. Retrieved 29 October 2024.
  35. ^ "People's Republic of China in Cycling Track". Olympedia. Retrieved 29 October 2024.
  36. ^ "People's Republic of China in Cycling Road". Olympedia. Retrieved 29 October 2024.
  37. ^ Thomason 2021, p. 462.
  38. ^ Ding 2019, pp. 354–357.
  39. ^ Ding 2019, p. 354.
  40. ^ "Deng Hits the Heights in Winning BMX Freestyle Gold". Olympic Council of Asia. 31 July 2024. Retrieved 31 October 2024.

Bibliography

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