Jump to content

Chronic traumatic encephalopathy in sports

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Most documented cases of chronic traumatic encephalopathy have occurred in many athletes involved in contact sports such as boxing, American football, professional wrestling, ice hockey, mixed martial arts, rugby and soccer.[1][2] Other risk factors include being in the military, prior domestic violence, and repeated banging of the head.[1] The exact amount of trauma required for the condition to occur is unknown.[1] Below is a list of notable cases of CTE in sports.

American football

[edit]
Main article: Concussions in American football
See also: List of NFL players with chronic traumatic encephalopathy

The study of CTE's relationship with American football began in 2002. Since then, hundreds of players have been diagnosed posthumously with CTE, including a number of players who committed suicide. CTE has affected not only professional football players, but also athletes who played only in college or in high school.

In 2005, Bennet Omalu, a forensic pathologist and neuropathologist in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, found CTE in the brains of Mike Webster, Terry Long, Andre Waters, Justin Strzelczyk, and Tom McHale.[3] Omalu, initially a medical examiner, then associate adjunct professor in California, was a co-founder of the Brain Injury Research Institute[4] and reportedly in 2012 participated in the autopsy of Junior Seau.[5] Omalu's participation was halted during the autopsy after Seau's son Tyler Seau, under pressure from the NFL, revoked previously provided oral permission. Tyler had received telephone calls from NFL management denouncing Omalu's professional ethics, qualifications, and motivation when the league asked him to revoke Dr. Omalu's research.[6]

Research into football players with CTE has continued with neuropathologist Ann McKee of Boston University's CTE Center, who diagnosed the bodies of twelve former professional American football players with CTE postmortem between 2008 and 2010.[7] An autopsy McKee conducted in 2010 on the brain of Owen Thomas, a 21-year-old junior lineman at the University of Pennsylvania who died of suicide, showed early stages of CTE, making him the second youngest person at the time to be diagnosed with the condition. Thomas was also the second amateur football player diagnosed with CTE. (Mike Borich, who died at 42, had been the first such player diagnosed with CTE, also by McKee.)[8] The doctors who performed the autopsy indicated that they found no causal connection between Thomas's early-stage CTE and his suicide. There was no indication that Thomas missed playing time due to concussions; however, as a player who played hard and "loved to hit people," Thomas may have played through concussions and received thousands of subconcussive impacts on the brain.[9]

On May 2, 2012, retired twelve-time Pro Bowler Junior Seau died of suicide from a gunshot wound to the chest.[10] There was speculation that he had brain damage due to CTE.[5][11][12][13][14] Seau's family donated his brain tissue to the National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke.[15] On January 10, 2013, the brain pathology report was released, and Seau's brain showed evidence of CTE.[16] Seven months after Seau's death, on December 1, 2012, Kansas City Chiefs linebacker Jovan Belcher killed his girlfriend, then drove to Arrowhead Stadium and killed himself in front of then-GM Scott Pioli and then-head coach Romeo Crennel. A year later, on behalf of Belcher's minor daughter, a family lawyer filed a wrongful-death lawsuit against the Chiefs, alleging that the team deliberately ignored warning signs of CTE, possibly leading to Belcher's suicide. The lawyer also hired a medical examiner to examine Belcher's brain for signs of CTE. On September 29, 2014, it was confirmed that he had CTE.[17] Coverage of Belcher's murder-suicide, combined with the suicide of Junior Seau, drew national attention to CTE and its effects on the brains of football players.

In September 2015, researchers with the United States Department of Veterans Affairs and Boston University announced that they had identified CTE in 96 percent of National Football League players that they had examined and in 79 percent of all football players.[18] By November 2016, 90 of 94 former NFL players had been posthumously diagnosed with CTE by McKee.[19] Professional players diagnosed included eight-time Pro Bowler Lou Creekmur,[20] Cookie Gilchrist[21] and Wally Hilgenberg.[22]

In March 2016, former NFL running back Kevin Turner, who played for the New England Patriots and Philadelphia Eagles, died at age 46. Earlier, in 2010, he had been diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). But after his death, his brain was donated to Boston University Brain CTE Center, which diagnosed Turner with a severe case of CTE and stated that it was CTE, not ALS, that had killed him.[23][24] However, there has been research into the connections of both CTE and ALS.

In April 2017, former New England Patriots tight end Aaron Hernandez died by suicide in prison at age 27. On September 21, 2017, an autopsy report from Boston University identified Stage 3 CTE in Hernandez's brain.[25] Until Hernandez's autopsy, researchers had never seen Stage 3 CTE in a brain younger than 46 years old.[26]

The Journal of the American Medical Association released an updated study in July 2017 reporting that out of 111 brains of deceased former NFL players studied, 110 (99%) had CTE.[27] This also led to players retiring very early in their careers. As of December 2018, 87% of the 202 American football players' brains that have been donated to Boston University tested positive for CTE.[28]

O. J. Simpson was suspected of having chronic traumatic encephalopathy before his death in 2024.[29][30][31] After his death, Scientists had requested for Simpson's brain to be studied for signs of CTE, but the Simpson estate refused, who announced that his whole body will be cremated instead.[32][33]

League updates

[edit]

The NFL has taken measures to help prevent CTE. In December 2009, the NFL changed its rules for the assessment of concussions and return to play after a possible head injury.[34] The number of full-contact practice sessions teams run has been reduced, based on the 2011 collective bargaining agreement.[clarification needed][35]

In 2012, some four thousand former NFL players "joined civil lawsuits against the League, seeking damages over the League's failure to protect players from concussions, according to Judy Battista of the [New York] Times."[36] In 2013 the NFL settled with a class-action lawsuit. The NFL supposedly hid the long-term effects of concussions. The NFL didn't admit to hiding anything, but they gave money to retired NFL football players who suffered from brain-related injuries from football.[37] On August 30, 2013, the NFL reached a $765 million settlement with the former NFL players over the head injuries.[38] The settlement created a $675 million compensation fund from which former NFL players can collect depending on the extent of their conditions. Severe conditions such as Lou Gehrig's disease and postmortem-diagnosed chronic traumatic encephalopathy may be entitled to payouts as high as $5 million.[38] From the remainder of the settlement, $75 million will be used for medical exams, and $10 million will be used for research and education.[38] However, in January, 2014, U.S. District Judge Anita B. Brody refused to accept the agreed settlement because "the money wouldn't adequately compensate the nearly 20,000 men not named in the suit."[39] In the settlement Brody did accept, she argued that people "cannot be compensated for C.T.E. in life because no diagnostic or clinical profile of C.T.E. exists, and the symptoms of the disease, if any, are unknown."[40] On April 22, 2015, a final settlement was reached between players and the NFL in the case adjudicated by Judge Brody. Terms include payments to be made by the NFL for $75 million for "baseline medical exams" for retired players, $10 million for research and education, as well an uncapped amount for retirees "who can demonstrate that they suffer from one of several brain conditions covered by the agreement," with total payments expected to exceed $1 billion over 65 years.[41]

On March 14, 2016, NFL's senior vice president of health and safety, Jeff Miller, publicly admitted that there is a link between football and CTE at the roundtable discussion on concussions.[42] In an attempt to lower the number of helmet-to-helmet hits, which often leads to concussions and increases likelihood of brain injuries, the NFL changed its rules for helmet-to-helmet hits in the offseason of 2018.[43]

Boxing

[edit]

The introduction of CTE and its relationship with Boxing began in 1928 when Dr. Harrison Stanford Martland discovered Punch Drunk Syndrome, the first label for Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy, in boxers.[44] Symptoms of CTE were often reported in boxers but unfortunately many boxers diagnosed with Punch Drunk Syndrome, Dementia Pugilistica, or CTE did not donate their brains for autopsy review. In 2005 approximately 77 years after its discovery there were fewer than 50 cases of brains with CTE found post mortem.[45]

Here are notable cases of Dementia Pugilistica, Punch Drunk Syndrome, and Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy in deceased boxers: Nathan Ehrlich, Adílson Rodrigues, Jack Doyle, Ad Wolgast, Joe Grim, Del Fontaine,[46] Jimmy Ellis,[47] Jerry Quarry,[48] and Jimmy Young,[49] Bobby Chacon,[50] Mike Quarry,[51] Emile Griffith,[52] Willie Pep,[53] and Billy Conn.[54]

Other cases of Boxers who have been speculated to have experienced CTE but not ever diagnosed with the condition were: “Terrible” Terry McGovern, Battling Nelson “the Durable Dane”, Muhammad Ali,[46] Sugar Ray Robinson,[55] Fritzie Zivic,[56] Meldrick Taylor,[57] and Rocky Graziano.[58]

Boxers currently living with the symptoms of CTE as of 2021: “Irish” Micky Ward,[59] Alan Blyweiss “The Rock”,[60] Wilfred Benitez,[61] and Herol Graham.[62]

Ice hockey

[edit]

Athletes from other sports have also been identified as having CTE, such as hockey player Bob Probert.[63] Neuropathologists at Boston University diagnosed Reg Fleming as the first hockey player known to have the disease. This discovery was announced in December 2009, six months after Fleming's death.[64]

Rick Martin, best known for being part of the Buffalo Sabres' French Connection, was diagnosed with CTE after his brain was posthumously analyzed.[65] Martin was the first documented case of an ice hockey player not known as an enforcer to have developed CTE; Martin was believed to have developed the disease primarily as a result of a severe concussion he received in 1977 while not wearing a helmet. The disease was low-grade and asymptomatic in his case, not affecting his cognitive functions. He died of a heart attack in March 2011 at the age of 59.[66]

Also within a few months in 2011, the deaths of three hockey "enforcers"—Derek Boogaard from a combination of too many painkillers and alcohol, Rick Rypien, an apparent suicide, and Wade Belak, who, like Rypien, was reportedly depressed; and all with a record of fighting, blows to the head and concussions—led to more concerns about CTE. Boogaard's brain was examined by BUSM, which in October 2011 determined the presence of CTE.[67] One National Hockey League player known in part for leading "the thump parade", former Boston Bruin right winger Shawn Thornton mulled over the "tragic coincidence" of the three recent league deaths and agreed that their deaths were due to the same cause, yet still defended the role of fighting on the rink.[68]

In 2016, Stephen Peat, then 36 years old and formerly an enforcer for the Washington Capitals during his professional career, was reported to be suffering severe symptoms of CTE. His father Walter was reported to worry that his son would join the "dead before turning 50 ... since 2010" list of enforcers including Boogaard, Rypien, Belak, Steve Montador.[69]

In December 2017 Zarley Zalapski died, at the age of 49, after complications related to a viral infection.[70][71][72] Following his death, his sister wanted to know if he had any brain issues and was confirmed to have CTE.[73] In 1989, Merril Hoge was a Pittsburgh Steeler when Zalapski was a Pittsburgh Penguin. The two were part of a civic helmet-safety campaign and posed for photos. A few years before Zalapski's death, his sister Kyla had reached out to Hoge to assist her brother who was struggling with his health to transition into retirement.[73]

In January 2018 former hockey player and captain for the Minnesota-Duluth Bulldogs Andrew Carroll, committed suicide, at the age of 32. He was only officially diagnosed with a few concussions. After looking at Andrew's lab results, researchers at Boston University estimated that number was closer to 20. A little over a year later Andrew Carroll was diagnosed with CTE.[74]

In 2011, USA hockey, which controls the rules surrounding youth hockey in the United States banned body checking along with checking at the head or neck for kids who are ages 13–14 or younger. This is supposed to help prevent youth hockey players from getting concussions and other injuries in youth hockey.[75]

In February 2015, Steve Montador died unexpectedly, and the subsequent examination of Montador's brain by doctors at Krembil Neuroscience Centre at Toronto Western Hospital found a "widespread presence" of CTE.[76] Montador joins the growing list of former ice hockey players discovered to have CTE which includes Rick Martin, Derek Boogaard, and Reg Fleming.[76]

Some researchers have argued that prospective longitudinal studies, following subjects over time, are needed to completely understand the causes and progression of CTE. [77]

Professional wrestling

[edit]

In 2007, neuropathologists from the Sports Legacy Institute (an organization co-founded by Christopher Nowinski, himself a former professional wrestler) examined the brain of Chris Benoit, a professional wrestler with WWE, who killed his wife and son before committing suicide. The suicide and double murder were originally attributed to anabolic steroid abuse, but a brain biopsy confirmed pathognomonic CTE tissue changes: large aggregations of tau protein as manifested by neurofibrillary tangles and neuropil threads, which cause neurodegeneration.[78][79]

In 2009, Bennet Omalu discovered CTE in recently retired wrestler Andrew "Test" Martin, who died at age 33 from an accidental drug overdose.[80]

On February 9, 2016, Daniel Bryan was forced to retire early due to signs of CTE and post-concussion seizures.[81] He was medically cleared to wrestle again on March 20, 2018.[82]

After their deaths in February and April 2016 respectively, former ECW wrestlers Axl Rotten and Balls Mahoney were found to have had CTE.[83]

In July 2016, 53 professional wrestlers, represented by Konstantin Kyros, filed a lawsuit against WWE, looking to hold the organization accountable for their "long-term neurological injuries" due to multiple concussions and CTE.[84] In November 2017, as part of filing an amended version of the lawsuit, Kelli Sloan and Shirley Fellows were added to the class-action documents, as they represented deceased wrestlers diagnosed with CTE, with Sloan representing her father Harry (Mr. Fuji) Fujiwara and Fellows her son Timothy Well. Carole Snuka, initially part of the first filing, also used the second filing to note her husband, whom she represented in the litigation, subsequently died and was also diagnosed with CTE.[85] The lawsuit was dismissed on September 14, 2018, by US district judge Vanessa Lynne Bryant.[86] An appeal was filed but the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit dismissed it on September 9, 2020.[87] According to a July 2019 appeal filed, six deceased wrestlers represented in the case were found to have CTE. Kyros noted Ashley Massaro, a seventh wrestler who has since died after she joined his class-action lawsuit, requested her brain be studied for CTE.[88]

Mixed martial arts

[edit]

Former mixed martial artists Gary Goodridge[89] and James Leahy suffer from CTE as a result of repeated head trauma during their fighting careers. In keeping with other recorded instances of delayed onset, Leahy's symptoms developed years after his retirement from martial arts.[90]

In October 2016, Bennet Omalu announced that CTE had been posthumously detected in the brain of MMA fighter Jordan Parsons.[91]

In 2018, Wanderlei Silva admitted to experiencing symptoms consistent with CTE and expressed a wish to donate his brain for research.[92]

Association football

[edit]

In 2012, Patrick Grange, a semi-professional footballer, was diagnosed in an autopsy with Stage 2 CTE with motor neuron disease. "The fact that Patrick Grange was a prolific header is important", Christopher Nowinski, co-founder of the Sports Legacy Institute, said in an e-mail. "We need a larger discussion around at what age we introduce headers, and how we set limits to exposure once it is introduced."[93] Grange played soccer in high school; college at Illinois-Chicago and New Mexico; in the Premier Development League; for Albuquerque Asylum; and for Chicago Fire Premier. He died of ALS at age 29 in 2012 with a posthumous diagnosis of CTE.[94]

In 2014, Brazilian footballer Hilderaldo Bellini was posthumously diagnosed with CTE. Bellini helped lead Brazil to FIFA World Cup victories in 1958 and 1962, and he was the team's captain in the first one.[95]

In 2017, a study identified CTE in four former association footballers known to be skilled headers.[96]

English midfielder, Nobby Stiles, who died in October 2020, was diagnosed post-mortem as having chronic CTE caused by repeated blows to the head, and the disease was highly likely to have caused the dementia that he suffered in later life. During his career at Manchester United, Stiles headed a ball more than 70,000 times.[97]

Rugby union

[edit]
See also: Concussions in rugby union

Researchers found Australian rugby union player Barry "Tizza" Taylor died in 2013 of complications of severe CTE with dementia at age 77. Taylor played for 19 years in amateur and senior leagues before becoming a coach.[93]

In 2013, Willie Stewart, Consultant Neuropathologist at the Institute of Neurological Sciences at the Southern General Hospital in Glasgow, identified CTE in the brain of a former amateur rugby player in his 50s which is believed to be the first confirmed case of early onset dementia caused by CTE in a rugby player.[98]

Rugby league

[edit]

An Australian study of 25 retired NRL players showed they had impaired reaction times and concentration compared to the general population.[99][100]

This included Kangaroos player Ian Roberts who had been knocked unconscious 14 times over his professional career.[101][102]

In 2022, former player Paul Green died at the age of 49. A neuropathologist professor stated Green had one of the most severe cases of CTE they'd ever seen.[103]

Australian football

[edit]

Analysis of the late Australian rules football player Danny Frawley brain revealed that he had stage two chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE) at the time of his death in 2019.[104]

Australian rules football player Greg Williams is thought to have CTE as a result of concussions over a 250-game career.[105]

In March 2016 Justin Clarke of the Australian Football League (AFL) team the Brisbane Lions was forced to retire at just 22 years of age due to a serious concussion sustained during off-season training two months earlier.[106] He was the fifth AFL player in the previous ten months to retire with concussion related injuries, with Sam Blease (25 yo, Melbourne and Geelong), Jack Fitzpatrick (26 yo, Hawthorn and Melbourne Football Club), Leigh Adams (27 yo, North Melbourne), Matt Maguire (32 yo, Brisbane and St Kilda), and Brent Reilly (32 yo, Adelaide) all having retired since May 2015. All the retirements were linked to a crackdown on head injuries by the AFL and fears of CTE associated with local and international sportspeople, especially American footballers.[107]

In 2021, an analysis of former Australian rules football player Shane Tuck revealed that he was suffering from stage three CTE, up to his suicide in 2020. This made him the third player to be diagnosed with CTE.[108]

Baseball

[edit]

In 2012, the brain tissue of Ryan Freel was tested after his death. It was found that he had Stage 2 CTE. Freel was the first Major League Baseball player to be diagnosed with chronic traumatic encephalopathy.[109] After the 2012 season, the MLB instituted the Buster Posey rule. The rule is intended to reduce injuries, concussions in particular, caused by home-plate collisions between catchers and baserunners.[110]

Canadian football

[edit]

On January 10, 2011, former AFL and Canadian football player through the years of 1956 to 1967 Cookie Gilchrist died. Gilchrist was diagnosed with stage four CTE by Boston University.[111]

Cycling

[edit]

In 2016, BMX biker and extreme sport icon Dave Mirra was diagnosed post-mortem with CTE. He died of suicide by gunshot on February 4, 2016, and his brain was examined by Lili-Naz Hazrati of the University of Toronto, who confirmed the diagnosis.[112] In addition to the "countless" concussions he had during his career, his skull was fractured when he was hit by a car at 19 years old and he took up boxing after retirement. He became the first action sports star to be diagnosed with the neurodegenerative disease.[113]

Rodeo

[edit]

In 2017, Ty Pozzobon, who at the age of 25 years also committed suicide, became the first professional bull rider diagnosed with the disease.[114][115] Within ten years, he had received 15 head injuries and his first concussion at the age of 16.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c Asken, BM; Sullan, MJ; DeKosky, ST; Jaffee, MS; Bauer, RM (1 October 2017). "Research Gaps and Controversies in Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy: A Review". JAMA Neurology. 74 (10): 1255–1262. doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2017.2396. PMID 28975240. S2CID 24317634.
  2. ^ Maroon, Joseph C; Winkelman, Robert; Bost, Jeffrey; Amos, Austin C; Mathyssek, Christina; Miele, Vincent (2015). "Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy in Contact Sports: A Systematic Review of All Reported Pathological Cases". PLoS One. 10 (2): e0117338. Bibcode:2015PLoSO..1017338M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0117338. PMC 4324991. PMID 25671598. (Erratum: doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0130507, PMID 26039052,  Retraction Watch. If the erratum has been checked and does not affect the cited material, please replace {{erratum|...}} with {{erratum|...|checked=yes}}.)
  3. ^ "What is CTE? | Concussion Legacy Foundation". concussionfoundation.org. Retrieved 2022-02-06.
  4. ^ "Our Team". Brain Injury Research Institute. Archived from the original on 2011-06-07.
  5. ^ a b "Seau family revisiting brain decision". ESPN. May 6, 2012. Archived from the original on May 7, 2012.
  6. ^ "In Brawl For Seau Brain, a Proxy War Over Concussion Science". FRONTLINE. Retrieved 2019-02-05.
  7. ^ Gavett BE, Stern RA, McKee AC (2011). "Chronic traumatic encephalopathy: a potential late effect of sport-related concussive and subconcussive head trauma". Clin Sports Med. 30 (1): 179–88, xi. doi:10.1016/j.csm.2010.09.007. PMC 2995699. PMID 21074091.
  8. ^ Staff. "First former college football player diagnosed with CTE: Former Brigham Young University Football Coach Died at 42", Center for the Study of Traumatic Encephalopathy, October 22, 2009. Accessed October 19, 2010.
  9. ^ Schwarz, Alan. "Suicide Reveals Signs of a Disease Seen in N.F.L.", The New York Times, September 13, 2010. Accessed September 14, 2010.
  10. ^ Duke, Alan; Chelsea J. Carter (3 May 2012). "Junior Seau's death classified as a suicide". CNN.com. Retrieved 3 May 2012.
  11. ^ Duke, Alan; Chelsea J. Carter. "Doctors to examine Junior Seau's brain". CNN. Retrieved 4 May 2012.
  12. ^ Given, Karen (May 12, 2012). "Researchers Compete For Athletes' Brains". wbur.org. Archived from the original on May 15, 2012.
  13. ^ Farmer, Sam (May 3, 2012). "Family of Junior Seau will allow his brain to be studied". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on May 5, 2012.
  14. ^ Smith, Michael David, "Boston researchers request Junior Seau's brain". NBC Sports Pro Football Talk, May 3, 2012. Retrieved 2012-05-03.
  15. ^ Lavelle, Janet (July 12, 2012). "Seau brain tissue donated for research". U-T San Diego. Archived from the original on May 1, 2015.
  16. ^ Wilner, Barry (January 10, 2013). "NFL's Junior Seau had brain disease CTE when he killed himself". The Washington Times.
  17. ^ "OTL: Belcher's brain had CTE signs". ESPN.com. 2014-09-29.
  18. ^ Breslow, Jason. "New: 87 Deceased NFL Players Test Positive for Brain Disease". Frontline. Retrieved 9 January 2016.
  19. ^ "Case Studies » CTE Center | Boston University". www.bu.edu. Archived from the original on 2017-02-07. Retrieved 2016-11-04.
  20. ^ Case Study: Lou Creekmur, Center for the Study of Traumatic Encephalopathy. Accessed August 17, 2010.
  21. ^ Gaughan, Mark (November 6, 2011). Gilchrist had severe damage to brain Archived November 9, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. The Buffalo News. Retrieved November 6, 2011.
  22. ^ Gladwell, Malcolm (October 18, 2009). "Offensive Play". The New Yorker.
  23. ^ "Former NFL player Kevin Turner's death caused by CTE, not ALS". SciPol.org. 2016-11-04. Retrieved 2019-04-24.
  24. ^ "Former NFL player Kevin Turner's death caused by CTE, not ALS". Washington Post. Retrieved January 29, 2017.
  25. ^ Belson, Ken (2017-09-21). "Aaron Hernandez Found to Have Severe C.T.E." The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2017-09-21.
  26. ^ Aaron Hernandez suffered from most severe CTE ever found in a person his age Adam Kilgore, The Washington Post, November 9, 2017
  27. ^ "Study: CTE Found In Nearly All Donated NFL Player Brains". npr.org. Retrieved 2017-07-25.
  28. ^ Piellucci, Mike; Hodgson, Sam (13 December 2018). "Suicide, Quarterbacks and the Hilinski Family". The New York Times.
  29. ^ Spies-Gans, Juliet (2016-01-29). "O.J. Simpson Likely Suffers From Brain Disease CTE, Says Bennet Omalu". Huffington Post. Retrieved 2019-02-28.
  30. ^ Li, Anand Veeravagu|Amy (2016-02-01). "Did Brain Trauma Make O.J. Simpson Violent?". Retrieved 2019-02-28.
  31. ^ "'Concussion' Doctor: 'I Would Bet My Medical License' O.J. Simpson Has Degenerative Brain Disease CTE". ABC News. 2016-01-29. Retrieved 2019-02-28.
  32. ^ "O.J. Simpson will be cremated; estate executor says 'hard no' to controversial ex-athlete's brain being studied for CTE". NBC News. 2024-04-14. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  33. ^ Cuevas, Jailene (April 13, 2024). "OJ Simpson will be cremated as family deny request for his brain to be donated to research". mirror.co.uk. Mirror. Archived from the original on April 13, 2024. Retrieved 14 April 2024.
  34. ^ "Goodell issues memo changing return-to-play rules for concussions". National Football League. 2 Dec 2009. Archived from the original on November 13, 2012. Retrieved 1 February 2019. NFL teams now have new, stricter instructions for when players should be allowed to return to games or practices after head injuries
  35. ^ "Even high school practices will be tougher than NFL workouts". NFL.com. 24 July 2011.
  36. ^ Coll, Steve, "Is Chaos a Friend of the N.F.L.?", The New Yorker, December 26, 2012. Citing the Times. Retrieved 2012-12-27.
  37. ^ "A safer NFL meets resistance: 'Guys are going to end up broke'". ESPN.com. 2018-08-09. Retrieved 2019-04-24.
  38. ^ a b c Connor, Tracy (30 August 2013). "NFL and players reach $765 million settlement over head injuries". U.S. News. Retrieved 15 December 2013.
  39. ^ "Judge scuttles NFL's $760M concussion settlement", MarketWatch citing NBC10 Philadelphia, January 14, 2014. Retrieved 2014-01-15.
  40. ^ Nocera, Joe, "N.F.L.'s Bogus Settlement for Brain-Damaged Former Players" (op-ed column), New York Times, August 11, 2015. Retrieved 2015-08-11.
  41. ^ Breslow, Jason M. "NFL Concussion Settlement Wins Final Approval from Judge". PBS. Retrieved 25 December 2015.
  42. ^ Fainaru, Steve (March 15, 2016). "Top NFL official acknowledges, for the first time, link between football, brain disease". Retrieved May 1, 2016.
  43. ^ Pennington, Bill (October 14, 2018). "Helmet-to-Helmet Hits in N.F.L. Haven't Diminished, but Penalty Flags Have". New York Times. Retrieved February 6, 2019.
  44. ^ Martland HS (1928). "Punch Drunk". Journal of the American Medical Association. 91 (15): 1103–1107. doi:10.1001/jama.1928.02700150029009.
  45. ^ "A Brief History of CTE". Concussion Legacy Foundation. Spring 2021. Retrieved 11 July 2021.
  46. ^ a b Dixon, Tris (25 May 2021). Damage: The Untold Story of Brain Trauma in Boxing. United Kingdom: Hamilcar Publications. pp. 1–58.
  47. ^ Bloomberg News, May 2014
  48. ^ Bob Mee. "Obituary: Jerry Quarry | Culture". The Independent. Retrieved 2021-05-10.
  49. ^ "Jimmy Young, 56; Boxer Lost Bouts With Norton, Ali, but Beat Foreman". Los Angeles Times. 2005-02-24. Retrieved 2023-06-15.
  50. ^ Sares, Ted (December 23, 2007). "Bobby Chacon and Danny 'Little Red' Lopez". East Side Boxing. Archived from the original on December 25, 2007.
  51. ^ "Boxer Mike Quarry dies at 55 – philly-archives". Articles.philly.com. 2006-06-13. Archived from the original on March 2, 2016. Retrieved 2021-05-10.
  52. ^ "Former boxing champion Emile Griffith dies at 75". Fox News. Retrieved 10 July 2021.
  53. ^ "Pep's Name Should Grace Front Street". HartfordInfo.org. Retrieved 2016-03-29.
  54. ^ Rapoport, Ron (5 November 1992). "Conn, 75, finally finds a foe tougher than Louis Pugilistic dementia robs boxing great of his memory". The Baltimore Sun.
  55. ^ Anderson, Dave (13 April 1989). "Sugar Ray Robinson, Boxing's 'Best,' Is Dead". The New York Times.
  56. ^ "FRITZIE ZIVIC, 71, FIGHTER WHO HELD WELTERWEIGHT TITLE PITTSBURGH". The New York Times. 18 May 1984.
  57. ^ HIRSLEY, MICHAEL (4 March 2005). "Not using their heads". Chicago Tribune.
  58. ^ "Tony Zale, 83, Middleweight Boxing Champion in the 1940's". The New York Times. 22 March 1997.
  59. ^ Cohen, Alexi (3 February 2020). "Micky Ward's toughest fight". Boston Herald.
  60. ^ "From punches to poems: Alan Blyweiss' story". Concussion Legacy Foundation. Retrieved 10 July 2021.
  61. ^ "Friends bring famed, ailing Puerto Rican boxer Wilfred Benitez to Chicago for medical help". Chicago Tribune.
  62. ^ Dixon, Tris (25 May 2021). Prologue: Damage: The Untold Story of Brain Trauma in Boxing. United Kingdom: Hamilcar Publications.
  63. ^ Schwarz, Alan (2011-03-02). "Hockey Enforcer Bob Probert Paid a Price, With Brain Trauma". www.nytimes.com. Retrieved 2011-03-02.
  64. ^ Schwarz, Alan; Klein, Jeff Z. (December 18, 2009). "Brain Damage Found in Hockey Player". The New York Times.
  65. ^ Klein, Jeff Z. (October 5, 2011). "Former Star Had Disease Linked to Brain Trauma". New York Times.
  66. ^ Golen, Jimmy (October 5, 2011). Brain study finds damage in Rick Martin Archived October 7, 2011, at the Wayback Machine. Associated Press. Retrieved October 5, 2011.
  67. ^ "Derek Boogard – A Brain 'Going Bad'", New York Times, Dec 5, 2011 10:05 AM ET. Part 3 of a three-part series chronicling Boogard's life and the posthumous research on his brain. Retrieved 2011-12-05.
  68. ^ Shinzawa, Fluto, "Grind of the enforcer difficult to fight through", Boston Globe, September 11, 2011. Retrieved 2011-09-11.
  69. ^ Branch, John, "After a Life of Punches, Ex-N.H.L. Enforcer Is a Threat to Himself", New York Times, June 1, 2016. Retrieved 2016-06-01.
  70. ^ "Former Calgary Flames defenceman Zarley Zalapski dead at 49". globalnews.ca. 2017-12-12.
  71. ^ "Former NHL defenceman Zarley Zalapski dead at 49 - Sportsnet.ca". Sportsnet.ca. 12 December 2017. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  72. ^ "Zalapski, former NHL defenseman, dies at 49". NHL.ca. 12 December 2017. Retrieved 12 December 2017.
  73. ^ a b "Zarley Zalapski's story shows CTE isn't black and white".
  74. ^ "Test Reveals Former Duluth Hockey Captain Had CTE Before Suicide". 2019-04-09. Retrieved 2019-04-10.
  75. ^ "Ice Hockey Concussion Rules". www.nationwidechildrens.org. Retrieved 2019-04-22.
  76. ^ a b Branch, John (2015-05-12). "Steve Montador Had C.T.E.; Family to Sue N.H.L." The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2019-06-21.
  77. ^ McCrory P, Meeuwisse WH, Kutcher JS, Jordan BD, Gardner A (2013). "What is the evidence for chronic concussion-related changes in retired athletes: behavioral, pathological and clinical outcomes?". Br J Sports Med. 47 (5): 327–330. doi:10.1136/bjsports-2013-092248. PMID 23479493.
  78. ^ Tagami Ty (2010-10-16). "Chris Benoit's father: Murderous rampage resulted from brain damage, not steroids". Atlantic Journal Constitution. Archived from the original on 2010-10-19. Retrieved 2010-10-18.
  79. ^ Sports Legacy Institute (2007-09-05). "Wrestler Chris Benoit Brain's Forensic Exam Consistent With Numerous Brain Injuries". ScienceDaily. Retrieved 2012-04-30.
  80. ^ Garber, Greg (2009-12-08). "Andrew 'Test' Martin suffered from postconcussion brain damage, researchers say". ESPN. Retrieved 2009-12-09.
  81. ^ "Daniel Bryan on concussions: You have a responsibility to yourself". ESPN.com. 2016-02-10. Retrieved 2016-02-11.
  82. ^ "Daniel Bryan medically cleared to return to in-ring action". WWE. Retrieved 2018-03-21.
  83. ^ William Windsor (2016-10-21). "Axl Rotten And Balls Mahoney Were Diagnosed With CTE". wrestlinginc.com. Retrieved 2017-09-12.
  84. ^ Machkovech, Sam (19 July 2016). "53 wrestlers file class-action civil suit against WWE over concussions, CTE". Ars Technica. Retrieved 20 July 2016.
  85. ^ Reporter, Bob Hohler-. "Three pro wrestlers diagnosed with CTE or similar disease - The Boston Globe". BostonGlobe.com.
  86. ^ "Report: Judge dismisses lawsuit against WWE by former wrestlers". SI.com. Retrieved 2018-10-08.
  87. ^ Collins, Dave (September 9, 2020). "Former WWE wrestlers' lawsuit over brain damage is dismissed". Associated Press. Retrieved September 23, 2020.
  88. ^ Kendall Trammell; Rebekah Riess (22 May 2019). "Ex-WWE star Ashley Massaro's brain could be donated to research". CNN.
  89. ^ TheMontageKing MMA (2017-01-26), Most Concussed MMA Fighters, retrieved 2017-04-01
  90. ^ Fowlkes, Ben, "Gary Goodridge, former MMA fighter and kickboxer, offers cautionary tale", Sports Illustrated, March 15, 2012. Accessed December 21, 2015.
  91. ^ Hohler, Bob. "First case of CTE diagnosed in MMA fighter", The Boston Globe, October 21, 2016. Accessed October 30, 2016. "He was only 25, but Jordan Parsons was a cage fighter, a professional mixed martial artist who on his best nights beat his opponents into submission. On his worst nights, Parsons was sent spiraling to the canvas by devastating blows to his head. Now, six months after he was struck and killed as a pedestrian by an alleged drunken driver, Parsons is the first fighter in the multibillion-dollar MMA industry to be publicly identified as having been diagnosed with the degenerative brain disease known as chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE)."
  92. ^ "Wanderlei Silva talks multiple concussion symptoms, wishes to donate brain for CTE research". 2019-02-07.
  93. ^ a b "First soccer, rugby players diagnosed with CTE", edition.cnn.com, 2014/02/28.
  94. ^ Branch, John, "Brain Trauma Extends to the Soccer Field", The New York Times, February 26, 2014. Accessed February 26, 2014.
  95. ^ washingtonpost.com, 2014/09/23.
  96. ^ Ling, Helen; Morris, Huw R.; Neal, James W.; Lees, Andrew J.; Hardy, John; Holton, Janice L.; Revesz, Tamas; Williams, David D.R. (March 2017). "Mixed pathologies including chronic traumatic encephalopathy account for dementia in retired association football (soccer) players". Acta Neuropathologica. 133 (3): 337–352. doi:10.1007/s00401-017-1680-3. PMC 5325836. PMID 28205009.
  97. ^ "Nobby Stiles: 'No doubt' heading caused ex-footballer's death, says son John". BBC Sport. 21 December 2020. Retrieved 28 November 2022.
  98. ^ BBC News "Rugby 'linked to early onset dementia'", BBC News', August 3, 2013.
  99. ^ "NRL players' brains more damaged than non-players: Study". ABC News. 2017-03-20.
  100. ^ Pearce, Alan J.; Rist, Billymo; Fraser, Clare L.; Cohen, Adrian; Maller, Jerome J. (2018). "Neurophysiological and cognitive impairment following repeated sports concussion injuries in retired professional rugby league players". Brain Injury. 32 (4): 498–505. doi:10.1080/02699052.2018.1430376. PMID 29388850. S2CID 46862058.
  101. ^ "'Rugby league gave me brain damage' - ex-Australia international Ian Roberts". BBC Sport. 2018-02-06.
  102. ^ "NRL great Ian Roberts opens up on brain damage after study". NZ Herald. 2018-02-06.
  103. ^ "Paul Green cause of death was CTE brain disease". foxsports.com.au. Retrieved 26 February 2023.
  104. ^ Canil, Jourdan, "AFL responds after analysis reveals Danny Frawley had stage two CTE", Australian Football League, September 1, 2020.
  105. ^ Sheehan, Paul, "Concussion a concern from elite to schools", The Sydney Morning Herald, February 27, 2013. Accessed December 20, 2015.
  106. ^ "Brisbane Lions defender Justin Clarke quits AFL at 22, after training accident leaves him with serious concussion and memory issues". ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 31 March 2016. Retrieved 27 June 2016.
  107. ^ Ralph, Jon (1 April 2016). "Justin Clarke becomes the fifth player to retire because of concussion as player manager Peter Jess calls for blindside tackle ban". Herald Sun. Retrieved 27 June 2016.
  108. ^ Waterworth, Ben (23 January 2021). "'The worst case I've seen': Study shows Shane Tuck suffered from severe case of CTE". Fox Sports Australia. News Corp Australia. Retrieved 23 January 2021.
  109. ^ "First Major League Baseball player diagnosed with CTE", edition.cnn.com, 2013/12/15.
  110. ^ "The year of catcher concussions and MLB's battle to do better with head trauma". CBSSports.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
  111. ^ Warren, Matt (2011-11-07). "Cookie Gilchrist Suffered Severe Brain Damage, Per Study". Buffalo Rumblings. Retrieved 2019-05-06.
  112. ^ Kounang, Nadia (May 25, 2016). "Late BMX biker Dave Mirra had CTE". CNN. Retrieved May 25, 2016.
  113. ^ "Doctors say late BMX legend Mirra had CTE". ESPN.com. 2016-05-24. Retrieved 2020-01-08.
  114. ^ Keene CD, Latimer CS, Steele LM, Mac Donald CL (2011). "First confirmed case of chronic traumatic encephalopathy in a professional bull rider". Acta Neuropathol. 135 (2): 303–305. doi:10.1007/s00401-017-1801-z. PMC 5773642. PMID 29285625.
  115. ^ Downs, Kaleb (October 12, 2017). "Promising bull rider who was 'going through hell' before suicide suffered from CTE, researchers say". mySA.com. Retrieved November 9, 2017.
[edit]
Wikiversity is calling for essays on Concussions in Sports
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chronic_traumatic_encephalopathy_in_sports&oldid=1256441918"