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Chilean Antarctic Territory

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Not to be confused with Antártica Chilena Province or Antártica (commune).

Chilean Antarctic Territory
Territorio Chileno Antártico
Coat of arms of Chilean Antarctic Territory
Coat of arms
Location in Antarctica.
Location in Antarctica.
Country Chile
RegionMagallanes and Chilean Antarctica
ProvinceAntártica Chilena
CommuneAntártica
Claimed6 November 1940
Government
 • GovernorJorge Flies
 • Regional delegateJosé Ruiz Pivcevic
 • MayorPatricio Fernández
 • INACH DirectorGino Casassa
Area
[1]
 • Total1,250,257.6 km2 (482,727.2 sq mi)
Population
 (2012 Census)[1]
 • Total115
 • Density0.00009/km2 (0.0002/sq mi)
Sex
[1]
 • Men100
 • Women15
Time zoneUTC-3
Area code56 + 61
CapitalVilla Las Estrellas
CurrencyChilean Peso
Websitehttp://www.inach.cl/ (in Spanish)

The Chilean Antarctic Territory, or Chilean Antarctica (Spanish: Territorio Chileno Antártico, Antártica Chilena), is a part of West Antarctica and nearby islands claimed by Chile. It comprises the region south of 60°S latitude and between longitudes 53°W and 90°W,[2] partially overlapping the Antarctic claims of Argentina (Argentine Antarctica) and the United Kingdom (British Antarctic Territory). It constitutes the Antártica commune of Chile.

The territory covers the South Shetland Islands, the Antarctic Peninsula (called O'Higgins Land—Tierra de O'Higgins—in Chile), and the adjacent islands of Alexander Island, Charcot Island and Ellsworth Land, among others. Its boundaries are defined by Decree 1747, issued on November 6, 1940, and published on June 21, 1955,[3] by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs:

The Chilean Antarctica or Chilean Antarctic Territory is: all lands, islands, islets, reefs, glaciers (pack-ice), and others, known and unknown, and respective territorial waters, existing within the limits of the cap constituted by the meridians 53° longitude west of Greenwich and 90° longitude west of Greenwich.

The commune of Antártica has an area of 1,250,257.6 km2.[4] If reckoned as Chilean national territory, it comprises 62.28% of the total area of the country. It is managed by the municipality of Cabo de Hornos with a seat in Puerto Williams in the Tierra del Fuego archipelago (thus Antártica is the only commune in Chile not administered by a municipality of its own). It belongs to the province of Antártica Chilena, which itself is a part of the region of Magallanes y la Antártica Chilena. The commune was created on July 11, 1961, and was part of the Magallanes Province until 1974, when the Antártica Chilena Province was created.

Chilean sovereignty over the Chilean Antarctic Territory is exercised in conformity with the Antarctic Treaty of 1959. This treaty established that Antarctic activities are to be devoted exclusively to peaceful purposes by the signatories and acceding countries, thereby freezing territorial disputes and preventing the construction of new claims or the expansion of existing ones.[5]

The Chilean Antarctic Territory corresponds geographically to time zones UTC-4, UTC-5, and UTC-6, but as with Magallanes it uses UTC-3 year-round. Chile currently has 13 active Antarctic bases: 4 permanent, 5 seasonal, and 4 shelters.

History

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Chilean Antarctica in colonial times

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Main article: Governorate of Terra Australis
World Map by Abraham Ortelius (1570), where appears the Terra Australis Incognita

For many years, cartographers and European explorers speculated about the existence of the Terra Australis Incognita, a landmass potentially of vast size located south of the Strait of Magellan and Tierra del Fuego.

On June 7, 1494, the Treaty of Tordesillas was signed between Spain and Portugal. This treaty gave rights to newly discovered territories to the two countries according to a line running from pole to pole; at 46° 37'W in the Spanish classical interpretation and farther west according to the Portuguese interpretation. The areas of Antarctica claimed by Chile today fall within the region granted to Spain by this original treaty. Though backed by the papal bull Ea quae pro bono pacis in 1506, the Treaty of Tordesillas was not recognized by several other European powers, including France and other Catholic states. For England, the Netherlands, Russia and other countries, the Antarctic areas were considered res nullius, a no man's land, subject to the occupation of any nation that had the courage and ambition to send people to claim them.[6]

In 1534, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V divided the South American territory of Spain into three governorates: New Castile or Peru (to Francisco Pizarro), New Toledo or Chile (to Diego de Almagro) and New León (to Simón de Alcazaba y Sotomayor [es]) also known as the Magellanic Lands and subsequently extended to the Strait of Magellan.[6]

Map of the Spanish Governorate of Terra Australis (1539–1555), the first territorial claim over the lands near the South Pole; later it was incorporated into the Governorate of Chile.

In 1539, a new governorate was formed south of New León called the Terra Australis under Pedro Sánchez de la Hoz.[6] This consisted of the land south of the Strait of Magellan, i.e. Tierra del Fuego, and onward to the South Pole. At the time, the existence of the Drake Passage was not known and Tierra del Fuego thought to be part of the Antarctic mainland.

In 1554, the conquistador Pedro de Valdivia, who led the Governorate of Chile, talked to the Council of the Indies about giving the rights of New León and Terra Australis to Jeronimo de Alderete. After the death of Valdivia in the following year, Alderete became the governor of Chile and thereby claimed New León and Terra Australis for Chile.[7][8][9] A Royal Decree of 1554 states:

Because it was personally consulted, we will grant to the Captain Jeronimo de Alderete the land across the Magellan Strait.[citation needed]

Later, in 1558, the Royal Decree of Brussels prompted the Chilean colonial government to "take ownership in our name from the lands and provinces that fall in the demarcation of the Spanish crown," referring to the land "across the Strait," i.e. Terra Australis.[6]

One of the most important works of Spanish literature, the epic poem La Araucana by Alonso de Ercilla, is considered by Chileans to give encouragement to their territorial claims in Antarctica. In the seventh stanza of his Canto I:

Northern Chile is of great length; it is called the coast of the new Sea of the South. From east to west it is narrow, 100 miles at its broadest, and at 27 degrees from the South Pole, the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans mix their waters in a narrow channel. And those two seas which clamour to join, passing along it, beat the rocks and spread out their waves, preventing numerous islands from joining together. At this point the land is split; here the waters can communicate. Magellan, Sir, was the first to open this path, which was then given his name.[10]

A circle located '27 degrees from the South Pole' corresponds to a latitude of 63 degrees south, on the southern side of the Drake Passage and just north of the Antarctic Peninsula. However, ambiguity suggests that a misplaced Strait of Magellan may be referred to.

There are other stories and maps, both Chilean and European, indicating that Terra Australis and Antarctica were claimed by the Captaincy General of Chile for the Spanish Empire.[citation needed]

In March 1603, the Spanish navigator Gabriel de Castilla sailed from Valparaiso entrusted with three ships belonging to the viceroy of Peru, Luis de Velasco y Castilla. The goal of this expedition was to repress the incursions of Dutch privateers in the Southern Seas as far as 64 degrees south latitude.[11][12] No documents confirming the latitude reached or land sighted have been found in the Spanish archives. However, a story told by the Dutch sailor Laurenz Claesz (date unknown, but probably after 1607), gives interesting details. Claesz said:

[They] sailed under the Admiral don Gabriel of Castile with three ships along the coasts of Chile towards Valparaiso, and from there to the strait. In March of 1603, he reached 64 degrees and they had a lot of snow there. In the following April, they returned back to the coast of Chile.[citation needed]

In 1622, a Dutch document was published in Amsterdam stating that at 64 degrees south there was land which was "very high and mountainous, snow cover, like the country of Norway, all white, land. It seemed to extend to the Solomon Islands."[13][14][15] This could be the first recorded sighting by a European of the Antarctic Peninsula. Other historians attribute the first sighting of Antarctic land to the Dutch mariner Dirk Gerritsz. According to his account, his ship was diverted from its course by a storm after passing through the Strait of Magellan as part of a Dutch expedition to the East Indies in 1599. Gerritsz may have sighted the South Shetland Islands, though there are doubts about his trustworthiness. Other authorities place the first sighting of mainland Antarctica as late as 27 January 1820 by an expedition of the Imperial Russian Navy led by Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen.

Open ocean south of South America was reported by the Spanish navigator Francisco de Hoces in 1525[16] and by Sir Francis Drake in 1578.[17] The existence of Drake Passage was confirmed when the Dutch navigator Willem Schouten became the first to sail around Cape Horn en route to the East Indies in 1616.[18] In 1772, the British explorer Captain James Cook circumnavigated the Southern Ocean.

19th century

[edit]
German map of the Antarctica made in 1891 by Adolf Stielers Handatlas, published by Gotha: Justus Perthes

After the colonies in the Americas had gained their independence, the new Spanish republics agreed amongst themselves to recognize the principle of uti possidetis, meaning new states would have the same borders as their predecessor Spanish colonies. Thus the Republic of Chile included all lands formerly belonging to the Captaincy General of Chile, including claims over portions of Antarctica.

In 1815, the Argentine-Irish Admiral William Brown launched a campaign to harass the Spanish fleet in the Pacific Ocean and, when passing Cape Horn with the Argentine vessels Hércules and Trinidad, his ships were driven down into the Antarctic Sea beyond 65° south latitude. Brown's report indicated the presence of nearby land, though he did not see any portion of the continent and no landings were made.

On August 25, 1818, the government of Argentina, then called the United Provinces of the Rio de la Plata, granted the first concessions for hunting earless seals and penguins in Antarctica to Juan Pedro de Aguirre, who operated the ship Espíritu Santo based on Deception Island. Espíritu Santo was joined by the American brig Hercilia. The fact that the Argentine sealers were able to sail directly to the island can be regarded as evidence that its location was already known.

Between 1819 and 1821, the Russian ships Vostok and Mirny, under the command of the German Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen in Russian service, explored Antarctic waters, as already noted. In 1821, at 69°W 53'S, he sighted an island which he called Alexander I Land, after the Russian Tsar. Although von Bellingshausen circumnavigated the continent twice, no member of his crew ever set foot on Antarctica.

In 1819, the British mariner William Smith rediscovered the South Shetland Islands, including King George Island. The American Nathaniel Palmer spotted the Antarctic Peninsula that same year. Neither of them went ashore on the actual continental landmass. However, in 1821, Connecticut seal hunter John Davis reported setting foot on a southern land that he believed was a continent.

In 1823, James Weddell claimed to have discovered the sea that now bears his name, lying inside the Antarctic Circle to the east of the Antarctic peninsula. The hunting of baleen whales and South American sea lions began to increase in the following years. In 1831, Chile's liberator Bernardo O'Higgins wrote to the Royal Navy, saying:

Old and new Chile extends, on the Pacific from the Mejillones Bay to New South Shetland, in latitude 65° South and on the Atlantic from San Jose Peninsula at latitude 42° to New South Shetland, that means, 23° with a glut of excellent ports on both oceans and all of them wholesome in all seasons. A simple glance at the map of South America is sufficient to prove that Chile, as is described, holds the keys of that vast portion of the South Atlantic

In 1856, a treaty of friendship between Chile and Argentina recognized boundaries and was enacted uti possidetis juris. The growth of Chilean settlements in the Magallanes Region and especially the city of Punta Arenas allowed the founding of companies for the hunting and exploitation of whales in the Antarctic seas, which required authorization from the Chilean government. In 1894, control over the exploitation of marine resources south of latitude 54 degrees south was given to the Punta Arenas Municipality.

20th century

[edit]

In the early years of the 20th century, interest in the Antarctic territories increased. Some expeditions to Antarctica asked permission from the government of Chile, among these being those of Otto Nordenskjöld in 1902 and of Robert F. Scott in 1900. Chile also granted mining permits, such as that conferred on December 31, 1902, by Decree No. 3310 allowing Pedro Pablo Benavides to lease the Diego Ramírez Islands and San Ildefonso.

In 1906, several decrees were promulgated, including some from the National Congress of Chile, offering mining permits in the Antarctic area. In that same year, the Minister of Foreign Affairs of Chile mentioned on September 18 that the delimitation of Chilean Antarctic territory would be the subject of a preliminary investigation. On June 10, 1907, Argentina formally protested and asked for mutual recognition of Antarctic territories. There was work on a treaty to more concretely define territories in the region, but it was never signed.

On May 8, 1906, the Whaling Society of Magallanes was created with a base in Punta Arenas. On December 1, the society was authorized to expand its territory to the South Shetland Islands, as allowed by Decree No. 1314 of the governor of Magallanes. The group expanded to Whalers Bay on Deception Island, where they hoisted the Chilean flag and established a coaling station. This area was visited by Jean-Baptiste Charcot in December 1908 to replenish coal. The site was manned during the summer seasons until 1914.

On July 21, 1908, however, the United Kingdom had officially claimed sovereignty over all lands between 20°W and 80°W and south of 50°S, including the Falkland Islands and South Georgia (although not, of course, the South American mainland). In 1917, the northern boundary of the claim was moved to 58°S, and in 1962 to the parallel 60°S.[19]

In 1914, Anglo-Irish explorer Ernest Shackleton began an expedition to cross the South Pole from the Weddell Sea to the Ross Sea, known as the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition. With the ship Endurance he sailed into the Weddell Sea, but the weather worsened dramatically and the Endurance was trapped for weeks and ultimately crushed by the ice. There followed an episode of bravery involving both Britain and Chile. Shackleton and his crew dragged three lifeboats over the frozen sea until they came to open water again, then sailed to the desolate Elephant Island at the very northern tip of the Antarctic peninsula. Shackleton and a picked crew then sailed one boat to South Georgia Island where help was obtained. However, three attempts to reach the rest of the expedition on Elephant Island were turned back by pack ice. Finally, in Punta Arenas, Shackleton obtained the help of the Chilean navy tugboat Yelcho, captained by Luis Pardo Villalón, which managed to rescue the remaining survivors. On 4 September 1916, they were received at the port of Punta Arenas as heroes. Captain Pardo's feat, sailing with temperatures close to −30 °C (−22 °F) and a stormy sea of icebergs, won him national and international recognition.

Sovereignty and the Antarctic Treaty System

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Commemorative stamp of the Chilean Antarctic declaration of 1940
Map of Chile, with the Antarctic claim highlighted to its south, and the extended continental shelf claim.
Gabriel González Videla inaugurating the Base General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme in Antarctica in 1948
Map of the three areas dividing the Chilean territory:
In blue: Continental Chile
In red: Insular Chile
In green: Antarctic Chile

On January 14, 1939, Norway declared its territorial claims on Queen Maud Land between 0° and 20°W. This prompted President Pedro Aguirre Cerda of Chile to encourage the definition of Chilean territory in the Antarctic. Following Decree No. 1541 on September 7, he organized a commission which set the bounds of Chilean territory according to the theory of polar areas, taking into account geographical, historical, legal, and diplomatic precedents. The bounds were formalized by Decree No. 1747, enacted on November 6, 1940, and published on June 21, 1955.[3] The Chilean claim extended no farther east than the 53°W meridian; thus the claim excluded the South Orkney Islands in favor of Argentina.[a] Nevertheless, Argentina formally protested in a note on November 12 November 1940, rejecting Chile's claim and expressing a potential claim to the same area.

In January 1942, Argentina declared Antarctic rights between the meridians 25° W and 68° 24' W, the westernmost meridian passing through Punta Dúngeness, the southernmost point of mainland Argentina. On September 2, 1946, Decree No. 8944 expanded the bundary for the Argentine Antarctic Sector, widening this sector out to 74° W. Chile began to exercise sovereignty in the Antarctic area in 1947, beginning with the establishment of Sovereignty Base, currently known as Arturo Prat, in the South Shetland Islands. The following year, as a way of establishing the Chilean claims, Chilean President Gabriel Gonzalez Videla personally opened Base General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme on the Antarctic Peninsula. This was the first official visit of a head of state to Antarctica.

On March 4, 1948, Chile and Argentina signed an agreement on mutual protection and legal defense of their Antarctic territorial rights, agreeing to act in concert to defend the rights of both countries in Antarctica, while leaving the delimitation of their territories for a later date. The governments agreed that "between the meridians 25° and 90° west longitude from Greenwich, indisputable sovereign rights are recognized by Chile and Argentina,"[20] stating that "Chile and Argentina have unquestionable rights of sovereignty in the polar area called American Antarctica" (Antártida Americana in Spanish).[21][22]

In 1953, the representative of India at the United Nations presented a project for the internationalization of Antarctica. The Chilean ambassador in New Delhi, Miguel Serrano, however, persuaded the Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru to withdraw the proposal.[citation needed] On May 4, 1955, the United Kingdom filed two lawsuits against Argentina and Chile before the International Court of Justice, to declare invalid the claims of sovereignty of the two countries in the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic areas. Chilean Law No. 11486 of June 17, 1955, added the Chilean Antarctic Territory to the Province of Magallanes, which on July 12, 1974, became the Region of Magallanes and Chilean Antarctica. On July 15, 1955, the Chilean government formally rejected the jurisdiction of the International Court of Justice in this case, and on August 1 the Argentine government followed suit. The United Kingdom submitted its written argument on March 16, 1956.[23]

On February 28, 1957, Argentine Decree Law No. 2129 established the limits of their claim as the meridians 25° and 74° W and the parallel 60° S. This continuied to overlap the territory claimed by Chile. In 1958, the U.S. president, Dwight Eisenhower, invited Chile to the International Geophysical Year Conference in an attempt to resolve the claiming issues. On December 1, 1959, Chile signed the Antarctic Treaty.

In July 2003, Chile and Argentina began maintaining a joint emergency shelter called Abrazo de Maipú in the Antarctic Peninsula, halfway between Base General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme, operated by Chile, and Esperanza Base, maintained by Argentina. It was closed in 2010.[24]

Chile will present its claim regarding the extended continental shelf west of the territory it claims in Antarctica to the United Nations' CONVEMAR.[25]

In 2023, the Hydrographic and Oceanographic Service of the Chilean Navy made available an illustrative graphic showing all the maritime areas claimed by the country, including those of the continental shelves and extended continental shelves of the Chilean Antarctic Territory.[26][27][28][29]

The Antarctic Treaty

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Main article: Antarctic Treaty System

The treaty states:

  • Antarctica is a World Heritage Site.
  • The Antarctic territory is to be reserved for peaceful purposes and cannot be used for war or for military or naval installations.
  • The signatory countries of the treaty have the right to establish bases for scientific purposes (marine biology, seismology, volcanology, etc.).
  • Territorial claims are to be frozen, ensuring each signatory nation the status quo for the duration of the treaty.
  • In this territory, even for peaceful purposes, there can be no nuclear tests and toxic waste cannot be left.

Geography and climate

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The Chilean Antarctic Territory map

Land elevation and features

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The Chilean Antarctic Territory covers an area of 1,250,257.6 km2. The thickness of ice covering the land can exceed 1,200 meters in some areas in the interior of the continent, and the extent of sea ice varies dramatically with the seasons.

Chilean Antarctic Territory is located predominantly in Lesser Antarctica or West Antarctica, which includes the Antarctic Peninsula, known in Chile as O'Higgins Land. Forming the spine of this peninsula are the mountains of the Antartandes,[30] which are a continuation of the Andes mountains. Mount Hope is the highest mountain in the Antartandes, reaching 3,239 meters in altitude. The Antartandes clearly differentiate three geographic areas in O'Higgins Land: the western slope, the central plateau and the eastern slope.

To the southwest of the Antarctic Peninsula, within the land claimed by Chile, are the highest summits of the Antarctic continent, a part of the Sentinel Range including the Vinson Massif at 4,897 m, Mount Tyree at 4,852 m and Mount Shinn at 4,800 m in height.

The claimed territory has a subglacial lake, the Lake CECs,[31] which was discovered in January 2014 by scientists of Centro de Estudios Científicos headquartered in Valdivia, Chile, and was validated in May 2015 with the publication of its existence in the journal Geophysical Research Letters.[32] The lake has an estimated area of 18 km2, lies 2.6 km deep under the ice and is located in a buffer zone of three major glaciers, in an area designated low-disturbance with ice motion almost nonexistent. There is a hypothesis that it could have life; this would have developed in conditions of extreme isolation and the lake is encapsulated.

Climate

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Coastal areas north of the Antarctic Peninsula and in the South Shetland Islands, have a subarctic climate or tundra, that is, the average temperature in the warmest month exceeds 0 °C (32 °F) and much is permafrost. The rest of the territory is under the regime of a polar climate. Precipitation in the territory is relatively rare and decreases towards the South Pole, creating polar desert conditions.

Population

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The Antártica Commune had a population of 150 inhabitants on the Chilean bases according to a census conducted nationwide in 2012, corresponding to 54 civilians and 96 military. These people were mostly members of the Chilean Air Force and their families, who lived predominantly in Villa Las Estrellas. This town, located next to the Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva Antarctic base on King George Island, was opened on 9 April 1984 and has an airport, a bank, a school and child care, a hospital, a supermarket, mobile telephony and television.

In 1984 the first Antarctic Chilean, Juan Pablo Camacho Martino, was born in Villa Las Estrellas. As of 2024, a total of three Chileans have been born in the Chilean Antarctic Territory; Gisella Cortés Rojas was born on December 2, 1984, and Ignacio Miranda Lagunas on January 23, 1985. They do not know each other and have not returned to Antarctica. As of 2024, Ignacio is the most recent Antarctic baby,[33][34][35][36][37] although the development of tourism has increased explosively through airplanes and cruise ships that depart from Punta Arenas or Ushuaia, with most of the flights arriving at King George Island handled by Dap Group.

Bases, stations, shelters and settlements

[edit]
Night view of Villa Las Estrellas, the only civil settlement

Due to the geographical characteristics of the Antarctic Peninsula, which the Chilean Antarctic Territory completely encompasses, the territory has some of the best conditions for human settlement in Antarctica.

There are four Chilean permanent bases operating throughout the year, while an additional five remain open only during the summer (December – March) with four seasonal shelters.

The largest population center is located on King George Island at Base Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva, which has an airstrip, a meteorological center (the Meteorological Center President Frei) and the Villa Las Estrellas. Belonging to Chile, this enclave forms the nucleus for important logistical support to other countries with scientific bases on King George Island.

The Chilean Antarctic Institute (INACH), under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, operates the Profesor Julio Escudero Base on King George Island, which is the chief Chilean scientific research center in Antarctica.

The Chilean Navy provides logistic and other support for scientific and other activities within Chile's Antarctic territory. As of 2023, the navy is in the process of acquiring a new Polar 5-class icebreaker, Almirante Viel, to support its Antarctic operations, offering year-round operation in medium first-year ice (which may include old ice inclusions).[38] Elements of the Maritime Authority operate throughout the region, promoting the security and interests of Chile, notably with the Maritime Government of Chilean Antarctica in Fildes Bay and at the Captain Arturo Prat Base on Greenwich Island, formerly a naval base, now a research station.[39] During the 2022–23 Antarctic season, the navy transferred 730 scientists and 3,091 tons of cargo for the logistical support of the Antarctic bases. The operation involved the transport vessel Aquiles, the patrol vessel Marinero Fuentealba, as well as two supporting tugboats.[40]

Since January 14, 1995, the navy has assisted the Mendel Polar Station belonging to the Czech Republic. Up to four Chilean researchers carry out scientific work at the base, each with sponsorship from a leading Czech researcher who collaborates in the work.

Chilean Antarctic Bases

[edit]

Following is a list of Chilean Antarctic Bases:

Name Country Location Type
Base Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva  Chile King George Island P
Base General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme  Chile Antarctic Peninsula P
Base Capitán Arturo Prat  Chile Greenwich Island P
Base Professor Julio Escudero  Chile King George Island P
Estación Polar Científica Conjunta "Glaciar Unión"  Chile Union Glacier S
Base Yelcho  Chile Doumer Island S
Base Doctor Guillermo Mann  Chile Livingston Island S
Base Presidente Gabriel González Videla  Chile Paradise Bay S
Base Carvajal  Chile Adelaide Island S
Refugio Julio Ripamonti  Chile Ardley Island S
Refugio Luis Risopatrón  Chile Robert Island S
Refugio General Jorge Boonen Rivera  Chile Duse Bay S
Refugio Collins  Chile Collins Bay S

(P): Permanent; these bases are open all the year. (S): Seasonal; therse bases are open in the Austral Summer.

The largest population center is located on King George Island and consists of Base Presidente Eduardo Frei Montalva which is connected to the communal capital, the village of Villa Las Estrellas, which has a town hall, hotel, day-care center, school, scientific equipment, hospital, post office and bank. There is an airport, Teniente Rodolfo Marsh Martin Aerodrome, ICAO Code SCRM[41]) This enclave is a center of logistical support for the other eight countries with scientific bases on King George Island.

Nearby, Professor Julio Escudero Base is controlled by the Chilean Antarctic Institute (INACH), under the Ministry of Foreign Relations, and is the main Chilean scientific facility in Antarctica.

Captain Arturo Prat Base is a Chilean Antarctic research base located on Greenwich Island. Opened 6 February 1947, it is the oldest Chilean Antarctic base. Until 1 March 2006 it was a base of the Chilean Navy, but was then handed over to the regional government of Magallanes y la Antártica Chilena Region. Until February 2004 it was a permanent base. Afterwards, it served as a summer base for ionospheric and meteorological research, but then reopened in March 2008 for year-round occupancy again.

The only permanent Chilean base on the Antarctic mainland (the Antarctic Peninsula) is Base General Bernardo O'Higgins Riquelme. This has been in operation since 18 February 1948. It is located on Puerto Covadonga and it is the official communal capital.[42][43]

Seasonal bases

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Penguins near President Gabriel González Videla Base (1957)
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See also

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Note

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  1. ^ Some Chilean nationalist sources say that Chile resigned a third of its Antarctic sector in favor of Argentina, without giving their sources, based on the line in the Treaty of Tordesillas being at the meridian 37° 7' W. However, the generally accepted position of that meridian is 46° 37' W.

References

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  1. ^ a b c "Censo 2012 – Población total contabilizada, censada y estimada de moradores ausentes, por sexo e índice de masculinidad, según región, provincia, comuna y área urbana – rural. (población incluyendo estimación de moradores ausentes)" (in Spanish). National Statistics Institute. Archived from the original (xls) on 6 March 2014. Retrieved 12 March 2014.
  2. ^ Lin, Camille. "Chile, Antarctica and the new constitution". Polarjournal. Retrieved 28 February 2024.
  3. ^ a b "Fija Territorio Chileno Antártico" (in Spanish). Biblioteca del Congreso Nacional de Chile. Retrieved 26 June 2024.
  4. ^ "Chilean Antarctica". Patagonia Chile. Retrieved 28 February 2024.
  5. ^ "The Antarctic Treaty (1959)". British Antarctic Survey. Retrieved 28 February 2024.
  6. ^ a b c d Pinochet de la Barra, Óscar (November 1944). La Antártica Chilena. Editorial Andrés Bello.
  7. ^ Francisco Orrego Vicuña; Augusto Salinas Araya (1977). Desarrollo de la Antártica (in Spanish). Santiago de Chile: Instituto de Estudios Internacionales, Universidad de Chile; Editorial Universitaria.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ^ Mancilla González, Pablo (1 July 2011). "Antecedentes históricos sobre el Territorio Antártico Chileno conocidos hacia la década de 1950" (in Spanish). Punta Arenas: Repositorio Antártica, Universidad de Magallanes. Archived from the original on 19 August 2022. Retrieved 25 August 2022.
  9. ^ Calamari, Andrea (June 2022). "El conjurado que gobernó la Antártida" (in Spanish). Jot Down.
  10. ^ Alonso de Ercilla y Zuniga (16 September 2017). "The Araucana". Translated by David Russell. Retrieved 28 January 2024.
  11. ^ "La Antártida de Gabriel de Castilla, otro gran español olvidado" (in Spanish). El Confidencial. 30 April 2022. Retrieved 29 March 2023.
  12. ^ Juan Pablo Mañueco. "La Antártida, el otro continente que descubrió Castilla". Guadalajara Diario. Archived from the original on 13 March 2019. Retrieved 29 March 2023.
  13. ^ José Miguel Barros Franco (1983). El Descubrimiento de la Antártica: Dirck Gerritsz - Gabriel de Castilla (in Spanish). Santiago de Chile: Boletín de la Academia Chilena de la Historia.
  14. ^ Isidoro Vázquez de Acuña (1993). "DON GABRIEL DE CASTILLA PRIMER AVISTADOR DE LA ANTARTICA" (PDF) (in Spanish). Revista Marina. Retrieved 27 February 2024.
  15. ^ Admin (20 May 2019). "Gabriel de Castilla, el descubridor de la Antártida". Revista de Historia.
  16. ^ Oyarzun, Javier, Expediciones españolas al Estrecho de Magallanes y Tierra de Fuego, 1976, Madrid: Ediciones Cultura Hispánica ISBN 978-84-7232-130-4
  17. ^ Sugden, John (2006). Sir Francis Drake. London: Pimlico. p. 46. ISBN 978-1-844-13762-6.
  18. ^ Quanchi, Max (2005). Historical dictionary of the discovery and exploration of the Pacific islands. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow Press. ISBN 0810853957.
  19. ^ "Britain in Antarctica". British Antarctic Survey. Retrieved 1 April 2024.
  20. ^ Pablo Rodríguez Márquez; Mario L. Puig Morales (2007). Chile y sus intereses en la Antártica (PDF) (in Spanish). Santiago de Chile. ISBN 978-956-8478-17-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)
  21. ^ Óscar Pinochet de la Barra (1987). "Negociaciones antárticas de Chile en un mundo cambiante". Revista Estudios Internacionales (in Spanish). 20 (Nº78): 210.
  22. ^ Rodrigo José Santibáñez Lehuedé (June 2021). "Antártica sudamericana: Chile y Argentina una meta en común (Primera mitad del siglo XX)" (PDF) (in Spanish). Santiago de Chile: Universidad de Chile.
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  30. ^ Dalziel, I. W. D. "Circum-Pacific Orogenic Processes: A view from the Andes and the Antarctandes" (PDF). Circum-Pacific Council for Energy and Mineral Resources. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 July 2021.
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  33. ^ Elena Martín-Cancela (9 March 2018). Tras las huellas del San Telmo: contexto, historia y arqueología en la Antártida. Prensas de la Universidad de Zaragoza. pp. 35–. ISBN 978-84-17358-23-5.
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  35. ^ Kaneptune (14 July 2020). "Why 11 Babies Have Been Born in Antarctica". Medium. Retrieved 8 September 2020.
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  40. ^ Garcia, Nicolás (19 April 2023). "La Armada de Chile cierra la Campaña Antártica 2022-2023 con más de 38.000 millas navegadas". Info.defensa.com.
  41. ^ Swartz, Karl. "SCRM – Teniente Rodolfo Marsh Martin, King George Island, AQ – Airport". Great Circle Mapper. Retrieved 4 June 2015.
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  43. ^ Decreto ley 2868
  44. ^ Paul Jeffrey. Cristian Donoso and Claudio Scaletta completes historic journey in Antarctica
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