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Buddhism in Armenia

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Buddhism[a] is a minor religion in Armenia, with a small but unknown number of adherents.[1] The first direct contacts of Armenians with Buddhism occurred in the 13th century during the height of the Mongol Empire, culminating in the foundation of a Buddhist monastery in Armenia by the Buddhist emperor Hulegu Khan of the Ilkhanate after his conquest of Armenia when Buddhism was declared as an official religion.[2] Contacts recurred elsewhere in subsequent centuries through Armenian merchants. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, Armenian intellectuals developed a strong interest in the religion.

Early indirect contacts

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Some scholars have identified An Shigao, China's earliest Buddhist translator, as the second-century Parthian prince Parthamasiris, who was appointed client king of Armenia by Roman Emperor Trajan in 113 AD.[3][4][5] This identification, however, has been widely disputed by scholars.[b]

An early indirect link of Armenia with Buddhism[8] is the medieval Christian legend of Barlaam and Josaphat (Հովասափ եւ Բարաղամ, Yovasap‘ ew Barałam), which is inspired by the life of Buddha.[9][10][11] There are three Armenian recensions of the legend,[8] including a verse version by Arakel Baghishetsi (Arakel of Bitlis) composed in 1434.[12] James R. Russell suggests that the Middle Armenian folk ballad of prince Aslan, recorded in modern times, assimilated aspects of the life of the Buddha, transmitted through the Christianized tale of Barlaam and Josaphat.[13]

13th century contacts

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Hethum I (seated) in the Mongol court of Karakorum, "receiving the homage of the Mongols".[14] Miniature from Histoire des Tartars, Hayton of Corycus (1307).
See also: Mongol Armenia

In the context of the 13th century Armenian-Mongol alliance, King Hethum I of Armenian Cilicia travelled to the court of Möngke Khan in Karakorum in 1254–55, which was chronicled by Kirakos Gandzaketsi. It contains accounts about Buddhism.[15] Philip C. Almond identified Hethum and Marco Polo as the only two medieval travelers to Asia who transmitted information about the Buddha.[16] John Andrew Boyle noted that Kirakos offered fewer details about Buddhism than his contemporary William of Rubruck, but he "anticipates Polo in supplying the names" of the historical and the future Buddha, Śākyamuni and Maitreya.[17]

Kirakos described Buddhists as "idol-worshippers" who worship the clay images of Šakmonia and Madri.[c] He wrote: "An entire people, women and children included, are priests. They are called toyink‘,[d] and have their heads and beards shaven. They wear cloaks like Christian [priests] but [fastened] at the breast, not at the shoulder. They are moderate in eating and marriage."[20]

Both Kirakos and Vardan Areveltsi wrote on Hulegu Khan's trust of Buddhist clergy, explaining it with the latter's promise of his immortality.[21] Kirakos called Buddhist priests "sorcerers and witches". He added: "They deceived [Hülegü] and said that they would make him immortal; and he lived, moved, and mounted [his horse] according to their words and thoroughly gave himself over to their will. Many times during the day he bowed to the ground to their leader, and ate from the dedicatory altar in the house of idols and esteemed it more than any of them. Therefore he especially adorned their temple of idols."[22] Vardan wrote that Hülegü was "deceived by the astrologers and priests of some images called Šakmonia".[23][24]

Buddhist monastery in Armenia

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Contemporary Armenian and Arab sources attest that Hulegu Khan (Hülegü), grandson of Genghis Khan and founder of the Ilkhanate in Persia (Iran), built a highland Buddhist monastery in his summer pastures in the mountains of Armenia.[25][26][e] Rashīd al-Dīn provided its name, Labnasagut, which may mean "Dwellings of the Lamas."[f] It was in Armenia's Ala-taγ (Aladağ) mountains, north of Lake Van,[29] in a region known as the plain of Daṙn in Armenian.[30][g] Land for the monastery was granted in 1259 and it was built between 1261 and 1265 and presumably operated for three decades, until 1295, when Ilkhan Ghazan converted to Islam,[33][h] and most likely ordered its destruction.[35] The site has not been discovered by archaeologists.[36] The monastery likely contained at least ten clerics[37] (initially likely from Uighur communities),[38] had two monumental sculptures of Śākyamuni and Maitreya, and "functioned as an active center of Buddhism."[39] Grupper described Labnasagut as the "forward-most outpost of Buddhism in late medieval Western Asia" and the "cradle of II-Qanid Buddhism."[40]

Later contacts

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Buddhist elements in Armenian art

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Dickran Kouymjian located Buddhist elements in the 1286 manuscript of The Lectionary of Prince Het‘um, commissioned by later king Hethum II. The grey-brown Chinese-inspired lions, protecting the Christ from dragons, trace their origin to Buddhism and the Buddha was considered a lion among men. There is also a Buddhist Wheel of the Law.[41][42] In another instance, there is a pair of eight pointed rosettes representing the same wheel.[43]

In the Gospels of 1587, Hakob Jughayetsi portraited God, Christ, and the Virgin Mary in a style Vrej Nersessian wrote "could easily be taken for an image of Buddha, and the similarity cannot be accidental."[44] He, like Sirarpie Der Nersessian, suggests that Hakob drew inspiration from objects bearing an image of Buddha brought by Julfa merchants from Asia.[45][44] Christina Maranci wrote that given his "mercantile family background, such contact is certainly possible."[45] He portrayed God as a "pale-eyed, jowled man with a down-turned mouth."[45] Christ is portrayed in one image with chubby face and encircled by a double nimbus in the image of Buddha and in another seated cross-legged like Buddha.[46] Nersessian noted that the portraits, seemingly "almost 'barbarous'," deviate from established traditions and were unprecedented and never imitated in Armenian illuminated manuscripts.[44]

Tibetan bell of Etchmiadzin

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Another evidence of Armenian contacts with Buddhism is the Tibetan inscription of Etchmiadzin Cathedral, Armenia's mother church.[47] The bell was housed at its 17th century bell tower, and was widely reported by foreign travelers and scholars throughout the 19th century.[48][54] The bell was removed in the late 1930s by the Soviets and has disappeared without a trace.[55] The inscription survives as a copy in an 1890 book by Ghevont Alishan:[56][57]

Dan Martin, a scholar of Tibet, wrote that the three-syllable mantra oṃ aḥ hūṃ, repeated thrice on the bell, is ubiquitous in Secret Mantra Buddhism and is used for blessing offerings. He argued that the inscription suggests that the bell was a consecrated Buddhist object.[58] Hewsen suggested that the bell was "probably the long-forgotten gift of some Mongol or Ilkhanid khan."[59] Martin proposed an alternative theory; suggesting that the bell may have originally been housed at the Labnasagut monastery or another Buddhist temple in the region and was later salvaged and transferred to Etchmiadzin or may have been brought from Lhasa to Armenia by New Julfa merchants in the 17th century, around the time the bell tower was built.[56]

Modern

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Intellectual interest

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See also: Buddhism and Western philosophy

There was significant interest in Buddhism in Armenian intellectual circles in the 19th and early 20th centuries, among both Russian Armenians and Turkish Armenians. Ghazaros Aghayan spoke highly of Edwin Arnold's The Light of Asia and began translating it from Russian in 1894, though he left the work incomplete and unpublished.[60][61] In 1895, during his time at Leipzig University, Hakob Manandian authored a brief article on Buddhism and Brahmanism and their influence on 19th century European philosophy. It was first published in 1990.[62] Avetik Isahakyan wrote that he had been obsessed with Buddha (and had been at times been a Tolstoyan, Nietzschean, a social democrat, anarchist) in his quest to liberate humanity from suffering.[63] Hovhannes Tumanyan, according to some scholars, was influenced by Buddhism and other Eastern religions.[64][65] Tumanyan wrote c. 1918 that the East has brought man to god and the universe and stirred Ātman (the self).[66]

In the Ottoman Empire, Khosrov Keshishian authored a critical study on Buddhism in 1900,[67] and Meroujan Barsamian wrote a poem titled "Buddha's Tears" in 1907.[68] A Western Armenian translation of Paul Carus's The Gospel of Buddha was published in Constantinople in 1911.[69] Diran Chrakian (Intra) was influenced by Buddhist ideas.[70]

Yeghishe Charents took a keen interest in Asian cultures, especially Buddhism, was fascinated with the Buddha,[71] and collected Buddha statuettes.[72] In 1933 Martiros Saryan drew Charents and his family with a Buddha statuette.[73][74] In 1936 Charents asked Alexander Bazhbeuk-Melikyan to draw him in a Buddhist style, seated in lotus position. Inspired by Gandhi, Charents signed it "Mahatma Charents".[75]

According to some scholars, George Gurdjieff's Fourth Way was influenced, among other sources, by Buddhism,[76] particularly Tibetan Buddhism.[77]

Soviet and independent Armenia

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The practice of Yoga in Armenia began as early as the 1970s and was tolerated by the Soviet authorities.[78]

Among Armenians, conversions to non-Christian religions remain uncommon, but Alexander Agadjanian has noted that certain individuals "may choose to convert to Buddhism, the Baháʼí Faith or any blend of the New Age."[79] According to Yulia Antonyan, in post-Soviet Armenia some people returned to religion seeking spirituality, but "only a small number of people have chosen Eastern religions and practices or their westernized or russianized versions." She noted that "their interest in eastern religions and religious philosophies and practices has been ultimately transformed into a sort of mystic pragmatism aimed at reaching physical or spiritual well-being through doctrines and practices of Buddhism and Hinduism such as meditation, Yoga or Ayurveda." The majority of these people, however, continue to identify as "Armenian-Christian" in terms of ethnic and cultural identity.[80]

In 2006 Armenpress reported on the existence of Buddhists in Armenia.[81] In 2010, Armenia's statistics agency listed Buddhism as one of the options for religion during a pilot census,[82] but the numbers of followers of minor religions was not published for the 2011 census.[83] Armenia has no Buddhist places of worship. In 2012 the Yerevan Municipality tentatively proposed the construction of a tourist attraction near Dalma Garden Mall that would include a church, a mosque, a synagogue, and a Buddhist temple.[84][i]

The World Peace Initiative Foundation organized meditation workshops in Armenia in 2015 and 2017.[87]

Armenian diaspora

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In Myanmar (Burma), where an Armenian mercantile community was active in the 17th–19th centuries,[88][89] some Armenians and their descendants (including those of partial Armenian ancestry) converted to Buddhism.[90][91] Before the British rule, non-Buddhist foreigners, including Armenians, "did not attempt to convert Buddhists, with the exception of their own spouses."[92] Ba Maw, Premier of British Burma in 1937–39 and dictator of the State of Burma in 1943–45, was reportedly[j] of partial Armenian descent.[99] He was brought up as a Christian and later converted to Buddhism to win the favor of Burmese Buddhists.[100][101]

In 1830, an Armenian archaeologist discovered a Pali papyrus of a Buddhist ritual in a temple and transferred it from Madras (Chennai), India to San Lazzaro degli Armeni, an Armenian monastery in Venice, where it is now displayed.[102]

During his first visit to the U.S. in 1979, the Dalai Lama met in New York, among other religious leaders, with Archbishop Torkom Manoogian, primate of the Eastern Diocese of the Armenian Church in America.[103]

Seta Manoukian has converted to Buddhism and is an ordained nun.[104][105]

See also

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References

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Notes
  1. ^ Eastern Armenian: բուդդայականություն, buddayakanut‘yun, or բուդդիզմ, buddizm; Western Armenian: պուտտայականութիւն or պուտտիզմ
  2. ^ Martha Cheung noted that it is "not the consensus of Buddhist scholars,"[6] while Eva Hung wrote that the identification "has now been rejected by most scholars of Chinese Buddhism."[7]
  3. ^ Grupper argued that the Armenian form Šakmonia corresponds "fairly well to the old Turkic forms Sakimuni and Sakyamuni" of Śākyamuni. As for Madri, he argued it is not a loan word from Chinese or Tibetan, and instead can best be explained as going back to the Uyghur name Maitri, rather than directly from the Sanskrit Maitreya.[18]
  4. ^ Toyin refers to Buddhist priests. Grupper noted that it is a "Turkic ecclesiastical title reserved for monks of noble descent."[19]
  5. ^ He also built Buddhist temples in Khoy and Maragheh in modern-day Iran.[27][26]
  6. ^ Grupper wrote that the meaning corresponds to the Sanskrit term vihāra. He suggested that it is composed of the Tibeto-Mongol compound plural form lab-nar "lamas" and the unattested deverbal noun sayuyud, from the Written Mongol verbal root sayu- "to live, dwell, reside."[28]
  7. ^ Henry George Raverty localized Labnasagut as being a "few miles west of Bayazid," near the northern shore of Lake Van, close to the eastern branch of the Euphrates."[31] Tadevos Hakobyan et al. placed Darndasht (Դառնդաշտ)/Aladagh (Ալադաղ) west of Maku, Iran, in the Artaz gavaṙ (canton) of Vaspurakan.[32] Grupper placed the site in the Ala-taγ massif, northeast of Lake Van, in the Darn steppe.[31]
  8. ^ Hülegü's descendants travelled to the summer pastures at Ala-taγ as late as 1301.[34]
  9. ^ Mkrtich Minasyan, head of Armenia's Union of Architects, criticized the idea, arguing that these religious buildings was not justified.[85] One media outlet mocked the idea of a Buddhist temple in Armenia.[86]
  10. ^ Min wrote that it was a rumor, "strengthened by the fact that one Thaddeus, an Armenian, occasionally visited the two boys in school on behalf of the mother" and that he had a "complexion much fairer than that of most of the Anglo-Burman boys" at his school. "It seems, however, that both their parents were of pure Talaing [Mon] blood."[93]
Citations
  1. ^ "Buddhism by the Numbers: Armenia". Tricycle: The Buddhist Review. Spring 2021. Archived from the original on 8 March 2023.
  2. ^ Vaziri, Mostafa (2012). "Buddhism during the Mongol Period in Iran". Buddhism in Iran: An Anthropological Approach to Traces and Influences. Palgrave Macmillan US. pp. 111–131. doi:10.1057/9781137022943_7. ISBN 9781137022943.
  3. ^ Peicheng, Qi (2021). "Was Armenian King Parthmasiris An Shigao? (Identifying Sutra Translator An Shigao Of China)" (PDF). Banber Yerevani Hamalsarani (2). Yerevan State University: 16–29. doi:10.46991/BYSU:A/2021.12.2.016 (inactive 1 November 2024). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2024-01-20.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (link)
  4. ^ Chang, H. K. (2023). "Buddhism's Spread in China". Civilizations of the Silk Road. Routledge. p. 94. doi:10.4324/9781003369899-5. ISBN 9781032439990.
  5. ^ Chi Yu Chu (2009). "Chinese Translation of Buddhist Terminology: Language and Culture". In Luo, Xuanmin; He, Yuanjian (eds.). Translating China. Multilingual Matters. p. 42. ISBN 9781847693853.
  6. ^ Cheung, Martha P.Y., ed. (2014). An Anthology of Chinese Discourse on Translation (Version 1): From Earliest Times to the Buddhist Project. Routledge. p. 53. ISBN 978-1-900650-92-2.
  7. ^ Hung, Eva (2005). "Cultural borderlands in China's translation history". Translation and Cultural Change: Studies in History, Norms, and Image Projection. John Benjamins Publishing. pp. 60-61. ISBN 90-272-1667-3.
  8. ^ a b Cowe, S. Peter (2016). "Armenian Hagiography". In Efthymiadis, Stephanos (ed.). The Ashgate Research Companion to Byzantine Hagiography: Volume I: Periods and Places. Routledge. pp. 316-317. ISBN 9781317043966.
  9. ^ Igunma, Jana (1 July 2019). "The Buddha's long 'journey' to Europe and Africa". British Library. Archived from the original on 16 January 2024.
  10. ^ Conybeare, F. C. (1896). "The Barlaam and Josaphat Legend in the Ancient Georgian and Armenian Literatures". Folk-Lore. 7 (2): 101–142. doi:10.1080/0015587X.1896.9720349. ISSN 0015-587X. JSTOR 1253758.
  11. ^ Asmussen, J. P. (December 15, 1988). "Barlaam and Iosaph". Encyclopaedia Iranica. Archived from the original on 16 January 2024.
  12. ^ Hacikyan, Agop J.; Basmajian, Gabriel; Franchuk, Edward S.; Ouzounian, Nourhan, eds. (2002). The Heritage of Armenian Literature, Vol. 2: From the Sixth to the Eighteenth Century. Detroit: Wayne State University Press. p. 669. ISBN 978-0814330234.
  13. ^ Russell, James R. (2019). "The Interrupted Feast". In Outtier, Bernard; Horn, Cornelia B.; Lourie, Basil; Ostrovsky, Alexey (eds.). Armenia between Byzantium and the Orient. Brill. pp. 471–472, 509. ISBN 978-90-04-39774-3.
  14. ^ "Hethoum I receiving the homage of the Tatars: during his voyage to Mongolia in 1254, Hethoum I was received with honors by the Mongol Khan who 'ordered several of his noble subjects to honour and attend him'" in Claude Mutafian, Le Royaume Armenien de Cilicie, p.58, quoting Hayton of Corycus.
  15. ^ Bayarsaikhan, Dashdondog (2011). The Mongols and the Armenians (1220-1335) (PDF). Leiden: Brill. p. 85. ISBN 978-90-04-18635-4.
  16. ^ Almond, Philip C. (1986). "The Medieval West and Buddhism". The Eastern Buddhist. 19 (2): 94–95. ISSN 0012-8708. JSTOR 44361759. Of all the medieval travellers to Asia who encountered Buddhism only two transmitted information about the Buddha. The first of these was Hethum or Hayton I, King of Lesser Armenia, who visited the court of Mangu Khan immediately after William of Rubruck. [...] But it was Marco Polo who gave to the West its most substantial picture of the Buddha.
  17. ^ Boyle, John Andrew (1964). "The Journey of Hetʿum I, King of Little Armenia, to the Court of the Great Khan Möngke". Central Asiatic Journal. 9 (3): 175–189. ISSN 0008-9192. JSTOR 41926618. On Buddhism he offers fewer details than his contemporary Rubruck; but he anticipates Polo in supplying the name of the historical Buddha and knows also of Maitreya, the future Buddha.
  18. ^ Grupper 2004, pp. 35–36.
  19. ^ Grupper 2004, pp. 43–44.
  20. ^ Kirakos Gandzaketsi (1961). "ԾԸ. Վասն երթալոյն բարեպաշտ թագաւորին հայոց Հեթմոյ առ Բաթոյն եւ Մանգու ղանն [58. Concerning the trip of the pious king of the Armenians, Het'um, to Batu and Mongke-Khan.]". In Melik-Ohanjanyan, K. A. [in Armenian] (ed.). Պատմութիւն հայոց [History of the Armenians] (PDF) (in Armenian). Yerevan: Armenian SSR Academy of Sciences Press. pp. 364–372. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2023-10-16.; translated by Robert Bedrosian, (New York: Sources of the Armenian Tradition), 1986, pp. 307-308
  21. ^ Jackson, Peter (2005). "The Mongols and the Faith of the Conquered". Mongols, Turks, and Others. Brill. p. 276. ISBN 978-90-474-0633-4.
  22. ^ Kirakos Gandzaketsi, 1961, "ԿԵ. Վասն մեծ պատերազմին որ եղեւ ընդ միմեանս Հուլաւուին եւ Բերքային [65. Concerning the great war which occurred between Hulegu and Berke.]". pp. 394–400.; translated by Robert Bedrosian, (New York: Sources of the Armenian Tradition), 1986, pp. 333–334
  23. ^ Thomson, Robert W. (1989). "The Historical Compilation of Vardan Arewelcʿi". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 43: 221. doi:10.2307/1291609. ISSN 0070-7546. JSTOR 1291609.
  24. ^ Elverskog, Johan (2011). Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 296. ISBN 9780812205312.
  25. ^ Samten, Jampa; Martin, Dan (2014). "Letters to the Khans: Six Tibetan Epistles of Togdugpa Addressed to the Mongol Rulers Hulegu and Khubilai, as well as to the Tibetan Lama Pagpa". In Vitali, Roberto (ed.). Trails of the Tibetan Tradition: Papers for Elliot Sperling. Dharamshala: Amnye Machen Institute. pp. 297-332.
  26. ^ a b Elverskog, Johan (2011). Buddhism and Islam on the Silk Road. University of Pennsylvania Press. pp. 139-140. ISBN 9780812205312.
  27. ^ Grupper 2004, p. 6.
  28. ^ Grupper 2004, pp. 28–30.
  29. ^ Grupper 2004, pp. 5, 28.
  30. ^ Grupper 2004, pp. 28–29.
  31. ^ a b Grupper 2004, p. 29.
  32. ^ Hakobian, T. Kh.; Melik-Bakhshian, St. T. [in Armenian]; Barseghian, H. Kh. [in Armenian] (1988). "Դառնդաշտ [Darndasht]". Հայաստանի և հարակից շրջանների տեղանունների բառարան [Dictionary of Toponyms of Armenia and Surrounding Regions] Volume II (in Armenian). Yerevan University Press. pp. 36-37.
  33. ^ Grupper 2004, pp. 6, 63.
  34. ^ Grupper 2004, p. 28.
  35. ^ Grupper 2004, p. 66.
  36. ^ Grupper 2004, pp. 6–7.
  37. ^ Grupper 2004, p. 31.
  38. ^ Prazniak, Roxann (2014). "Ilkhanid Buddhism: Traces of a Passage in Eurasian History". Comparative Studies in Society and History. 56 (3): 662–663. doi:10.1017/S0010417514000280. ISSN 0010-4175. JSTOR 43908303. S2CID 145590332.
  39. ^ Grupper 2004, p. 35.
  40. ^ Grupper 2004, p. 5.
  41. ^ Kouymjian, Dickran (2012). "Chinese Dragons and Phoenixes among the Armenians". In Tubach, Jurgen; Vashalomidze, Sophie; Zimmer, Manfred (eds.). Caucasus during the Mongol Period. Reichert Verlag. pp. 107-128. ISBN 978-3895008924.
  42. ^ Kouymjian, Dickran (1986). "Chinese Elements in Armenian Miniature Painting in the Mongol Period". Armenian Studies: Études Arméniennes: in Memoriam Haïg Berbérian. Calouste Gulbenkian Foundation. pp. 415-468.
  43. ^ Kouymjian, Dickran (2006). "Chinese Motifs in Thirteenth-Century Armenian Art: The Mongol Connection". In Komaroff, Linda (ed.). Beyond the Legacy of Genghis Khan. Brill. pp. 303–324. ISBN 978-90-474-1857-3.
  44. ^ a b c Nersessian, Vrej (2001). Treasures from the Ark: 1700 Years of Armenian Christian Art. Los Angeles: J. Paul Getty Museum. pp. 222-223. ISBN 9780892366392.
  45. ^ a b c Maranci, Christina (2018). The Art of Armenia: An Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 177. ISBN 978-0190269005.
  46. ^ Haleblian, Krikor G. (July 2004). "Art, Theology, and Contextualization: The Armenian Orthodox Experience". Missiology: An International Review. 32 (3): 324. doi:10.1177/009182960403200303. S2CID 194151156.
  47. ^ Reclus, Élisée (1891). Keane, A. H. (ed.). The Earth and Its Inhabitants: The Universal Geography. Vol. VI: Asiatic Russia. London: J. S. Virtue & Co. p. 147. One of the bells bears a Tibetan inscription [...] showing that at some unknown epoch Armenia must have had relations with the Buddhist world.
  48. ^ interview with Levon Abrahamian; Vagramyan, Kristina (8 October 2012). "Многие годы над Первопрестольным Эчмиадзином раздавались звуки священной мантры [For Many Years, Sacred Mantra Sounds Reverberate Over Mother See of Etchmiadzin]". armtoday.info (in Russian). Archived from the original on 22 November 2012.
  49. ^ Martin, Dan (September 24, 2017). "That Tibetan Bell in Armenia Once More". Tibeto-logic. Archived from the original on 1 July 2020.
  50. ^ Brosset, Marie-Félicité (1837). "Note sur quelques monnaies géorgiennes du Musée asiatique et sur une inscription tibétaine d'Edchmiadzin ; par M. Brosset (lu le 25 août 1837) [Note on some Georgian coins from the Asian Museum and on a Tibetan inscription from Edchmiadzin; by Mr. Brosset (read on August 25, 1837)]". Bulletin Scientifique (in French). 2 (24). Imperial Academy of Sciences of Saint Petersburg: 383-384.
  51. ^ von Haxthausen, August (1854). Transcaucasia: Sketches of the Nations and Races Between the Black Sea and the Caspian. London: Chapman and Hall. pp. 286–287.
  52. ^ Bryce, James (1878). Transcaucasia and Ararat: Being Notes of a Vacation Tour in Autumn of 1876 (3rd ed.). London: Macmillan and Co. p. 309.
  53. ^ Lynch, H. F. B. (1901). Armenia: Travels and Studies. Volume I: The Russian Provinces. London: Longmans, Green, and Co. p. 266.
  54. ^ [49][50][51][52][53]
  55. ^ Maghakyan, Simon (May 11, 2021). "What Happened to Armenia's Famous Tibetan Bell?". Tibeto-logic. Archived from the original on 2021-12-05.
  56. ^ a b Martin, Dan (October 6, 2017). "That Tibetan Bell in Armenia - Part Two". Tibeto-logic. Archived from the original on 23 November 2023.
  57. ^ Alishan, Ghevont (1890). Այրարատ [Ayrarat] (in Armenian). Venice: San Lazzaro degli Armeni. p. 221.
  58. ^ Martin, Dan (October 14, 2017). "Tibetan Bell in Armenia - Concluding". Tibeto-logic. Archived from the original on 23 November 2023.
  59. ^ Hewsen, Robert H. (2001). "The Monastery of Ējmiatsin". Armenia: A Historical Atlas. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 259. ISBN 0-226-33228-4.
  60. ^ Ղազարոս Աղայան, «Երկերի ժողովածու», հատոր 4-րդ [Ghazaros Aghayan, Collected works, vol. 4 ], Yerevan: Haypethrat, 1963. Letter to Hovhannes Tumanyan, February 1894 (pp. 536-537 «Ասիայի լույսը, որ արդեն թարգմանում եմ և մի հրաշալի բան է»); p. 661 «Նրա հիշյալ պոեմի ռուսերեն առաջին (1890 թ.) թարգմանությունից է Աղայանը փորձել այն թարգմանել հայերեն։ Աղայանի թարգմանությունը մնացել է անավարտ ու անտիպ և պահվում է հեղինակի արխիվում (Գրակ․ և արվ․ թանգարան, Աղայանի ֆոնդ)։»
  61. ^ Ավետիք Իսահակյան. Երկերի ժողովածու. հատոր 5-րդ, 1977, Երևան, «Սովետական գրող» [Avetik Isahakyan, Collected works. Vol. 5, 1977, Yerevan: Sovetakan grogh, «Ղազարոս Աղայան» ["Ghazaros Aghayan"] p. 34 «Թիֆլիսում, 1892 թվի ... գնացել էի Հովհաննես Թումանյանի մոտ ... [...] Տո, Օհաննես, մի գիրք եմ կարդում, զարմանալի, հրաշալի գիրք, ձեռնարկել եմ թարգմանել. պոեմա է, Բուդդայի կյանքից է. գրքի անունն է «Ասիայի լույսը»- հեղինակն անգլիացի է՝ Առնոլդ...»
  62. ^ "Հ. Հ. Մանանդյանի նորահայտ հոդվածը բուդդայականության մասին [Newly discovered article by H. H. Manandian on Buddhism]" (PDF). Banber Yerevani Hamalsarani (in Armenian) (2). Yerevan State University: 115–120. 1990. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2024-01-15.
  63. ^ Ավետիք Իսահակյան. Երկերի ժողովածու. հատոր 5-րդ, 1977, Երևան, «Սովետական գրող» [Avetik Isahakyan, Collected works. Vol. 5, 1977, Yerevan: Sovetakan grogh, «Իմ ազատ և ստեղծագործ ժողովրդի հետ» (Գրել է 1937 թ. ապրիլին). pp. 312–313 «Ինչով չեմ տարվել, ի՜նչ փիլիսոփայական, էտիկական, հասարակագիտական սիստեմներով՝ ազատագրելու տառապող մարդկությունը: Եղել եմ տոլստոյական, նիցշեական, Գերմանիայում, ուսանող ժամանակս՝ սոցիալ-դեմոկրատ: Հուսահատված՝ դարձել եմ անիշխանական, պեսիմիստ: Տարվել եմ Բուդդայով:»
  64. ^ Avagyan, Sona (22 February 2010). "Թումանյանը' գաղտնագետ ու ծածկագետ". Hetq (in Armenian). Archived from the original on 18 January 2024. Թումանյանի աշխարհը այդ գաղտնագիտությունն է` օկուլտիզմը, միստիցիզմը, յոգան, բուդդայականությունը»,- ասաց Հ. Ուլուբաբյանը: [...] Թումանյանը զբաղվել է կրոնների եւ փիլիսփայությունների ուսումնասիրությամբ: Մեծ գրողը հատվածներ է թարգմանել եւ «Զրադաշտից», եւ «Բհագավագիտտայից», որը չի տպագրվել Թումանյանի երկերի լիակատար ժողովածուում:
  65. ^ Matevosyan, Hrant (1969). "Գիրք Թումանյանի մասին". hrantmatevossian.org (in Armenian). Archived from the original on 18 May 2022. Բուդդայի ուսմունքին իր տեղյակությունը հայտնող, նիրվանայի բանաստեղծական մեկնությունից մինչև անձնական ու ազգային ճակատագրով բռնի ներխցկումն բուդդայականության անօդ սրվակ
  66. ^ Հովհաննես Թումանյան, «Երկերի Լիակատար Ժողովածու», հատոր 8-րդ, [Hovhannes Tumanyan's Complete Works, Vol. 8], 1997, pp. 450, 652
  67. ^ «Քննական ուսումնասիրութիւն Պուտտայականութեան վրայ» [Critical study on Buddhism] in Byurakn lragir (Բիւրակն լրագիր), 25 January 1900, Constantinople, pp. 35-41
  68. ^ «Պուտտայի արցունքները» in Masis weekly (Մասիս շաբաթաթերթ), issue 6, 29 December 1907, pp. 116-117
  69. ^ Galionchean, S. H. (1911). Պուտտայի աւետարանը ըստ հին արձանագրութիւններու (PDF) (in Armenian). Constantinople: Onik Arzuman. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2024-01-16.
  70. ^ Avetisyan, Lusine [in Western Armenian] (2014). "Տիրան Չրաքեանի աշխարհայեացքը". Grakanagitakan handes (in Armenian). Armenian National Academy of Sciences: 76–118. Չրաքյանի պատկերացումներում բուդդայականության որոշ տարրեր կան։ [...] Չրաքյանի հայացքներում էլ բուդդայականության այս տարրերը զգալի են
  71. ^ James R. Russell, "The Armenian Counterculture That Never Was: Reflections of Eghishē Ch‘arents‘", originally published in the Journal of the Society for Armenian Studies 9 (1999), pp. 17-35; reproduced in Russell, James R. (2004). Armenian and Iranian Studies. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. pp. 744, 754.
  72. ^ "Չարենցի թանգարանի ճապոնական շունչը". Aravot (in Armenian). June 24, 2011. Archived from the original on 19 January 2024. նա խորապես ուսումնասիրել է արեւելյան մշակույթը, մասնավորապես՝ բուդդիզմը: Ունեցել է Բուդդայի արձանների մեծ հավաքածու, որի նմուշներից մեզ դժբախտաբար շատ քչերն են հասել:
  73. ^ "Mes Deux Amours. Չարենցի երկու կանայք "հանդիպել" են". armradio.am (in Armenian). Public Radio of Armenia. Archived from the original on 19 January 2024.
  74. ^ Isahakyan, Avik (January 11, 2023). "Երկու մասունք". Hayastani Hanrapetutyun (in Armenian). Archived from the original on 4 October 2023.
  75. ^ Makiyan, Hayk (18 March 2023). ""Դու՝ Բաժբեուկ, համարյա թե հանճարեղ ես"․ Եղիշե Չարենց". Hetq (in Armenian). Archived from the original on 19 January 2024.
  76. ^ Cusack, Carole M. (2021). "Ṣūfism and the Gurdjieff 'Work': A Contested Relationship". Handbook of Islamic Sects and Movements. Brill. pp. 612–631. doi:10.1163/9789004435544_032. ISBN 978-90-04-43554-4. The origins of 'the Work', the system taught by the Greek-Armenian esoteric spiritual teacher, George Ivanovich Gurdjieff (c. 1866–1949) remain obscure, and its sources have been sought in a range of religious traditions, most commonly Buddhism, Christianity, and Ṣūfism.
  77. ^ Urban, Hugh B. (2015). Zorba the Buddha: Sex, Spirituality, and Capitalism in the Global Osho Movement. University of California Press. p. 37. ISBN 9780520286672. Gurdjieff was incredibly eclectic, having explored and drawn from a vast array of religious, spiritual, and mystical ideas, ranging from Eastern Orthodox Christianity, Tibetan Buddhism, and Sufism
  78. ^ Yevstratov, Anton (April 30, 2019). ""Йога в Армении существовала всегда"" (in Russian). Armenian Museum of Moscow. Archived from the original on 21 May 2022. Йогу в общепринятом смысле, как комплекс упражнений, в Армении стали практиковать как минимум с 70-х годов ХХ века.
  79. ^ Agadjanian, Alexander (2014). Armenian Christianity Today: Identity Politics and Popular Practice. Farnham: Ashgate. p. 2. ISBN 9781472412713.
  80. ^ Antonyan, Yulia (December 2011). "Religiosity and religious identity in Armenia: Some current models and developments". Acta Ethnographica Hungarica. 56 (2): 316–317. doi:10.1556/AEthn.56.2011.2.4.
  81. ^ Hovsepian, Levon (24 March 2006). "Հայաստանում 300 հազարից ավելի ոչ առաքելական հայկական եկեղեցու հետեւորդներ կան" (in Armenian). Armenpress. Archived from the original on 19 January 2024. Կան նաեւ հարավկորեական, չինական եւ բուդդայական ծագման շարժումներ:
  82. ^ "ՀՀ 2010թ. փորձնական մարդահամար [2010 pilot census]" (PDF). armstat.am (in Armenian). Statistical Committee of the Republic of Armenia. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 July 2022.
  83. ^ "Population (urban, rural) by Ethnicity, Sex and Religious Belief" (PDF). Population Census 2011. Statistical Committee of the Republic of Armenia. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 19, 2023.
  84. ^ Mkrtchyan, Anush (December 12, 2012). "«Նոյլենդը» դեռ «շատ հում» ծրագիր է". azatutyun.am (in Armenian). RFE/RL. Archived from the original on 15 January 2024.
  85. ^ "«Նոյլենդում» կրոնական համալիրի կառուցումն արդարացված չէ. Ճարտարապետների միության նախագահ". civilnet.am (in Armenian). 12 December 2012. Archived from the original on 16 January 2024.
  86. ^ "«Չորրորդ ինքնիշխանություն». մեզ միայն մզկիթն էր պակաս". Hetq (in Armenian). 11 December 2012. Archived from the original on 18 January 2024.
  87. ^ "Meditation With A Monk In Armenia". Peace Revolution. March 27, 2017. Archived from the original on 29 May 2023.
  88. ^ Sarkissian, Margaret (1987). "Armenians in South-East Asia". Crossroads: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 3 (2/3): 1–33. ISSN 0741-2037. JSTOR 40860241.
  89. ^ "The last Armenians of Myanmar". BBC News. 27 August 2014.
  90. ^ Downing, Jared (July 27, 2019). "The invisible bond: the Armenians of Myanmar". Frontier Myanmar. Archived from the original on 25 March 2023. ...maintain their church (even if many have become Buddhists).
  91. ^ "Մյանմարի հայկական եկեղեցին վերածնվեց. կրկին պատարագ կմատուցվի հայերենով" (in Armenian). Armenpress. 17 October 2014. Archived from the original on 2 April 2015. ...հայտարարություն է արվել ողջ երկրում, որպեսզի տեղի ծագումով հայերը ներկայանան: Հավաքվել է մոտ 25-30 հոգի, ովքեր թեև չեն խոսել հայերեն, որոշները եղել են բուդդայական, որոշները քրիստոնյա, սակայն ունեցել են իրենց հայությունն ապացուցող փաստաթղթեր, լուսանկարներ:
  92. ^ Schendel, Jörg (1999). "Christian missionaries in Upper Burma, 1853–85". South East Asia Research. 7 (1): 61–91. doi:10.1177/0967828X9900700103. ISSN 0967-828X. JSTOR 23746976.
  93. ^ Min, U. Kyaw (1945). The Burma We Love. Calcutta: India Book House. p. 8.
  94. ^ Pearn, B. R. (1945). "Burma Since the Invasion". Journal of the Royal Society of Arts. 93 (4686): 155–164. ISSN 0035-9114. JSTOR 41361895. Dr. Ba Maw was an experienced politician. Of mixed Burmese and Armenian descent, and brought up as a Christian...
  95. ^ Tucker, Shelby (2001). Burma: Curse of Independence. Pluto Press. p. 70. ISBN 9780745315416. Ba Maw (b. 1893), a Christian, widely believed to be part Armenian
  96. ^ Kratoska, Paul H., ed. (2013). Southeast Asian Minorities in the Wartime Japanese Empire. Routledge. p. 35. ISBN 9781136125065. Ba Maw, who was of mixed Burman and Armenian descent, was born in 1890.
  97. ^ Myint-U, Thant (2011). The River of Lost Footsteps. Faber & Faber. p. 229. One of the newer faces was an up-and-coming barrister named Dr. Ba Maw. The son of one of Thibaw's courtiers, Ba Maw was rumored to be of part-Armenian ancestry.
  98. ^ Collier's Encyclopedia: With Bibliography and Index, Volume 3. 1964. p. 539. He was born in Maubin to Mon and partly Armenian parentage
  99. ^ [94][95][96][97][98]
  100. ^ Maung, Mya (1991). The Burma Road to Poverty. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 46. Dr. Ba Maw was a Eurasian with Armenian blood; he was originally a Christian and later converted to Buddhism to woo the Burmese Buddhists for political support.
  101. ^ Ling, Trevor (1979). Buddhism, Imperialism and War: Burma and Thailand in modern history. London: Allen & Unwin. p. 101. ISBN 0-04-294105-9. Not himself a Buddhist by upbringing (he was born in a Christian family with some Armenian connections and was educated in law at Cambridge and Bordeaux), his attitude to the Buddhist Sangha can best be described as opportunist.
  102. ^ "The Island of San Lazzaro". mechitar.com. Armenian Mekhitarist Congregation. Archived from the original on 21 January 2015.
  103. ^ Nashold, James (1980). "The Meeting of East and West : The Dalai Lama's First Trip to the United States". The Tibet Journal. 5 (1/2). Library of Tibetan Works and Archives: 34–41. ISSN 0970-5368. JSTOR 43299969.
  104. ^ "The Silent Canvas Speaks Aloud: Seta Manoukian Paints Again". Asbarez. April 11, 2019. Archived from the original on 21 January 2022.
  105. ^ Anmahouni, Hrair (2020). "Հարցազրոյց Սեդա Մանուկեանի հետ". Pakine (in Armenian). Archived from the original on 28 July 2023.
Bibliography
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