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Asparagopsis

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Asparagopsis
Asparagopsis taxiformis in Mayotte.
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Clade: Archaeplastida
Division: Rhodophyta
Class: Florideophyceae
Order: Bonnemaisoniales
Family: Bonnemaisoniaceae
Genus: Asparagopsis
Mont.

Asparagopsis is a genus of edible red macroalgae (Rhodophyta). The species Asparagopsis taxiformis is found throughout the tropical and subtropical regions, while Asparagopsis armata is found in warm temperate regions. Both species are highly invasive, and have colonised the Mediterranean Sea. A third accepted species is A. svedelii, while others are of uncertain status.

Taxonomy and nomenclature

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Asparagopsis armata

The genus Asparagopsis belongs to the order Bonnemaisoniales, and family Bonnemaisoniaceae. As of July 2022, there are three confirmed species:[1]

Other possible species are still unconfirmed:[1]

This genus, particularly Asparagopsis taxiformis, is also a complex species line which is composed of six cryptic lineages with different biogeographic distributions.[2]

General morphological description

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Thalli (gametophyte)

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The thalli are composed of erected feathery or plumose branches that arise from creeping stolons attached to substrate with the aid of rhizoids. The erect branches compose a central terete axis that give rise to densely arranged plumose branches. The plumose branches are composed of numerous fine, delicate, and densely determinate branchlets that are disposed around an axis. Creeping, harpoon-like barbed branchlets are uniquely found in Asparagopsis armata, which contributes to its status as one of the worst invasive species in the temperate regions.[3]

The colour of thalli ranges from red to reddish brown. Some exhibits brown colouration, especially when exposed to the tides.[citation needed]

Reproductive structures (gametophyte)

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The main reproductive structures are the cystocarps (female) and spermatangia (male). The cystocarps are subspherical to ovate in shape, and grow at the apices of the short branches. The structures are red in color, while the spermatangia are cylindrical in shape, and also grow at the apices.[4]

Tetrasporophyte phase (falkenbergia)

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The tetrasporophyte of the genus Asparagopsis is morphologically different from the gametophyte. It exhibits a turf-like appearance, with trisophonous filaments that occur in either red or brown colouration.[citation needed]

It is an interesting note that the cryptic lineages of Asparagopsis taxiformis line exhibit different morphological characteristics. Morphological delineation between these genetic lineages were observed and recorded on both gametophytic and tetrasporophytic forms. Size, shape, and number of cells were compared on the thallus, reproductive structures (spermatangia and carposporophyte) of each lineage. Results show that there is a difference between these structures of A. taxiformis cryptic lineages, on which a revision of the taxonomic status of this species has been proposed.[5]

Life history

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Like other seaweeds from the order Bonnemaisoniales, the life history of the genus Asparagopsis is triphasic and heteromorphic, meaning an alternation of 2 diploid and 1 haploid stage constitute the whole life cycle. Reproduction begins when the spermatium (male gamete) from the male gametophyte fertilises the carpogonium (female gamete) of the female gametophyte. This results in a developing zygote that eventually becomes a diploid carposporophyte. The carposporophyte grows along the axes of the female branch and acts as a parasite, absorbing nutrients from the female plant. Seasonal environmental conditions, such as temperature, activate the release of mature carpospores from the cystocarp. Carpospores will settle and germinate to become tetrasporophytes. Eventually, tetrasporophytes will produce tetraspores, usually in sets of four, two spores will become the male gametophyte, while the remaining two become the female gametophyte. The sex ratio is normally 50:50.[6]

Distribution and habitat

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The species Asparagopsis taxiformis is found throughout the tropical and subtropical regions, while Asparagopsis armata is distributed in the warm temperate region, where it clings to other seaweeds using its barbed harpoon branches. A. taxiformis typically grows on solid substrate of rocky-reef areas, from intertidal (wave and tide exposed) to subtidal areas.[7]

Ecological impacts

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The genus Asparagopsis is known to be an important, highly invasive species. Both species A. armata and A. taxiformis are included on the list of the "worst invasive alien species threatening biodiversity in Europe and Mediterranean Sea".[8] Asparagopsis armata, a native species from Australia and New Zealand, has spread its population strictly in the temperate region, particularly in Europe. Due to its invasive capacity, the presence of Asparagopsis has an effect on the distribution and abundance of other marine organisms, such as peracarid crustaceans.[9]

Assemblage of epifaunal communities in the Mediterranean Sea shows a decrease in diversity and homogenised distribution compared with other associated seaweeds present in the area. The structure of the associated macrofauna (species composition, variability among samples, and relative abundance of the species) was also different in a habitat dominated by A. armata and A. taxiformis. This further validates the capacity of genus Asparagopsis to be successful and influential bio-invaders of different habitats.[10]

Economic use

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The genus Asparagopsis, is used as food for human consumption; for medicinal applications: antibacterial, antimicrobial, antibiotic, and goitre, among others, and cosmetics.[11][unreliable medical source?] It also has the potential to be used in the development of pharmaceuticals.[12][13]

In Hawaii, dried Asparagopsis taxiformis is considered as a delicacy, and is commonly eaten in poke (fish salad). The seaweed is prepared by cleaning and soaking it overnight in fresh water to remove the bitter iodine taste.[14]

Like all macroalgae, Asparagopsis contains bromoform, a halogen compound which is known to inhibit methane production in ruminants. It has been shown to convert much of the enteric methane (a powerful greenhouse gas) to energy (and some carbon dioxide) for cattle during normal digestion. Because of its high bromoform content, Asparagopsis has proven to be very effective in inhibiting methane production in livestock. Laboratory experiments have shown that 2-5% of seaweed biomass effectively reduces emissions by 98-100%.[15][16] A 2020 collaborative study conducted in Australia by Meat and Livestock Australia, CSIRO and James Cook University, confirmed the effectiveness of Asparagopsis in reducing methane emissions, and also showed emissions could be reduced by more than 98% with a 0.2% addition of Asparagopsis to cattle's feed.[17][18] Emissions were reduced by 80% when Asparagopsis accounted for 3% of the cattle's feed.[19][20] This could address the increased carbon footprint from the meat industry and mitigate climate issues in the long run.[21]

From research to production

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Subsequent to the Australian study, CSIRO established FutureFeed Pty Ltd., which holds the global intellectual property (IP) rights for the use of Asparagopsis for livestock feed, with the aim of significantly reducing enteric methane emissions in ruminants.[22] In 2020, FutureFeed won a Food Planet Prize worth $1 million.[23] The importance of the product is as a food supplement.[24]

FutureFeed aims to support this use of Asparagopsis and licenses its IP accordingly. CH4 Global, with research and production facilities in Australia and New Zealand, was the first licensee.[25] Others include Sea Forest,[26] also in Australia, Symbrosia[27] and Blue Ocean Barns[28] in the USA, and Volta Greentech in Sweden.[29]

Some organizations, including CH4 Global,[30] Sea Forest,[31] Blue Ocean Barns,[32] and Greener Grazing,[33] are developing methods for the large-scale cultivation of Asparagopsis, either in land-based and ocean hatchery systems.

As interest from the investment community has grown, several companies have obtained series A venture capital financing: Blue Ocean Barns received US$20 million,[34] CH4 Global received an initial US$13 million,[35] and Symbrosia US$7 million.[36]

In 2022-23, Meat & Livestock Australia published a study of the use of Asparagopsis with canola oil as a carrier, in the "finishing diet" of penned Wagyu cattle. It resulted in a 28% reduction in methane (CH4) production. However, there was also persistently reduced liveweight, liveweight gain, and a trend to reduced carcase weight.[37]

References

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  1. ^ a b "Asparagopsis Montagne, 1840". Algaebase. Archived from the original on 21 July 2022. Retrieved 21 July 2022.
  2. ^ Dijoux, L.; Viard, F.; Payri, C. (2014). "The more we search, the more we find: discovery of a new lineage and a new species complex in the genus Asparagopsis". PLOS ONE. 9 (7): e103826. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9j3826D. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0103826. PMC 4116237. PMID 25076489.
  3. ^ Trono Jr., Gavino C. (1997). Field Guide & Atlas of the Seaweed Resources of the Philippines. Makati City, Philippines: Bookmark. p. 169. ISBN 971-569-252-4.
  4. ^ Zanolla, M., Carmona, R., and Altamirano, M. (2017). "Reproductive ecology of an invasive lineage 2 population of Asparagopsis taxiformis (Bonnemaisoniales, Rhodophyta) in the Alboran Sea (western Mediterranean Sea)". Botanica Marina. 60 (6): 627–638. doi:10.1515/bot-2017-0056. S2CID 90382619 – via De Gruyter.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ Zanolla, M., Carmona, R., De La Rosa, J., Salvador, N., Sherwood, A.R., Andreakis, N., and Altamirano, M. (2014). "Morphological differentiation of cryptic lineages within the invasive genus Asparagopsis (Bonnemaisoniales, Rhodophyta)". Phycologia. 53 (3): 233–242. Bibcode:2014Phyco..53..233Z. doi:10.2216/13-247.1. S2CID 85600844 – via Taylor and Francis Online.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  6. ^ Mickelson, A. (2013). "Defining culture requirements for reproduction and growth of Asparagopsis taxiformis, a Hawaiian native red alga". Masters Thesis – via ProQuest.
  7. ^ Trono Jr., Gavino C. (1997). Field Guide & Atlas of the Seaweed Resources of the Philippines. Makati City, Philippines: Bookmark. p. 169. ISBN 971-569-252-4.
  8. ^ Streftaris, N.S., and Zenetos, A. (2006). "Alien marine species in the Mediterranean - the 100 'worst invasives' and their impact". Mediterranean Marine Science. 7: 87–118. doi:10.12681/mms.180 – via Hellenic Centere for Marine Research.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  9. ^ Guerra-García, J.M., Ros, M., Izquierdo, D., and Soler-Hurtado, M.M. (2021). "The invasive Asparagopsis armata versus the native Corallina elongata: Differences in associated peracarid assemblages". Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 416–417: 121–128. doi:10.1016/j.jembe.2012.02.018 – via Elsevier Science Direct.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ Navarro-Barranco, C., Florido, M., Ros, M., González-Romero, P., and Guerra-García, J.M (2018). "Impoverished mobile epifaunal assemblages associated with the invasive macroalga Asparagopsis taxiformis in the Mediterranean Sea". Marine Environmental Research. 141: 44–52. Bibcode:2018MarER.141...44N. doi:10.1016/j.marenvres.2018.07.016. PMID 30093236. S2CID 51952493 – via Elsevier Science Direct.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ^ "Seaweed for Biotechnology | seaExpert". 27 February 2020. Retrieved 22 November 2022.
  12. ^ Neethu, P. V.; Suthindhiran, K.; Jayasri, M. A. (2017). "Antioxidant and Antiproliferative Activity of Asparagopsis taxiformis". Pharmacognosy Research. 9 (3): 238–246. doi:10.4103/pr.pr_128_16. ISSN 0976-4836. PMC 5541479. PMID 28827964.
  13. ^ Trono Jr., Gavino C. (1997). Field Guide & Atlas of the Seaweed Resources of the Philippines. Makati City, Philippines: Bookmark. p. 171. ISBN 971-569-252-4.
  14. ^ Clark, J.R. (1990). Beaches of Kaua'i and Ni'ihau. Honolulu, USA: University of Hawaii Press.
  15. ^ Kinley, Robert D.; Nys, Rocky de; Vucko, Matthew J.; Machado, Lorenna; Tomkins, Nigel W. (9 February 2016). "The red macroalgae Asparagopsis taxiformis is a potent natural antimethanogenic that reduces methane production during in vitro fermentation with rumen fluid". Animal Production Science. 56 (3): 282–289. doi:10.1071/AN15576. ISSN 1836-5787. S2CID 86220977.
  16. ^ Roque, Breanna Michell; Brooke, Charles Garrett; Ladau, Joshua; Polley, Tamsen; Marsh, Lyndsey Jean; Najafi, Negeen; Pandey, Pramod; Singh, Latika; Kinley, Robert; Salwen, Joan King; Eloe-Fadrosh, Emiley; Kebreab, Ermias; Hess, Matthias (12 February 2019). "Effect of the macroalgae Asparagopsis taxiformis on methane production and rumen microbiome assemblage". Animal Microbiome. 1 (1): 3. doi:10.1186/s42523-019-0004-4. ISSN 2524-4671. PMC 7803124. PMID 33499933.
  17. ^ "Aussie seaweed stops cows farting, cancels carbon footprint". Australian Financial Review. 8 March 2020. Retrieved 18 November 2020.
  18. ^ Kinley, Robert D.; Martinez-Fernandez, Gonzalo; Matthews, Melissa K.; de Nys, Rocky; Magnusson, Marie; Tomkins, Nigel W. (20 June 2020). "Mitigating the carbon footprint and improving productivity of ruminant livestock agriculture using a red seaweed". Journal of Cleaner Production. 259: 120836. Bibcode:2020JCPro.25920836K. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2020.120836. ISSN 0959-6526. S2CID 216251207.
  19. ^ Burreson, B. Jay; Moore, Richard E.; Roller, Peter P. (1 July 1976). "Volatile halogen compounds in the alga Asparagopsis taxiformis (Rhodophyta)". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 24 (4): 856–861. doi:10.1021/jf60206a040. ISSN 0021-8561.
  20. ^ Genovese, Giuseppa; Tedone, Laura; Hamann, Mark T.; Morabito, Marina (2009). "The Mediterranean Red Alga Asparagopsis: A Source of Compounds against Leishmania". Marine Drugs. 7 (3): 361–366. doi:10.3390/md7030361. PMC 2763106. PMID 19841720.
  21. ^ Bryce, Emma (30 September 2021). "Kowbucha, seaweed, vaccines: the race to reduce cows' methane emissions". The Guardian. Retrieved 1 April 2022.
  22. ^ WO2015109362A2, MACHADO, Lorenna; MAGNUSSON, Marie Elisabeth & TOMKINS, Nigel William et al., "Method for reducing total gas production and/or methane production in a ruminant animal", issued 2015-07-30 
  23. ^ "FutureFeed -- PRIZEWINNER 2020 -- BASED IN AUSTRALIA". Food Planet Prize. December 2020.
  24. ^ Marchant, Gabriella (19 December 2020). "Australian 'super seaweed' supplement to reduce cattle gas emissions wins $1m international prize". ABC News.
  25. ^ "CH4 Global Secures Future Feed Licenses for Asparagopsis Seaweed Businesses in New Zealand and Australia". www.businesswire.com. 20 October 2020. Retrieved 30 November 2022.
  26. ^ "Sea Forest gets funding to commercialize CSIRO seaweed feed tech". AFN. 15 February 2021. Retrieved 30 November 2022.
  27. ^ "Welcome Symbrosia". FutureFeed. Retrieved 30 November 2022.
  28. ^ "Blue Ocean Barns I Solving Agriculture's Big Climate Change".
  29. ^ "Welcome Volta Greentech". FutureFeed. Retrieved 30 November 2022.
  30. ^ "CH4 Global builds full-scale EcoPark in New Zealand". thefishsite.com. September 2022. Retrieved 30 November 2022.
  31. ^ Bowen, Nigel (27 April 2022). "This award-winning startup is getting ready to take its methane-eliminating seaweed feedstock to market. Will it work?". SmartCompany. Retrieved 30 November 2022.
  32. ^ "From the Ocean, a Cure for Cow Burps". ECPAmericas. Retrieved 30 November 2022.
  33. ^ "Greener Grazing - Farming Seaweed: Transforming Climate".
  34. ^ Neuhauser, Alan (12 July 2022). "Blue Ocean Barns raises $20M to cut cow burps". Axios. Retrieved 30 November 2022.
  35. ^ FinSMEs (7 October 2021). "CH4 Global Raises US$13M in Series A Funding". FinSMEs. Retrieved 30 November 2022.
  36. ^ Horton, Cole (23 June 2022). "Symbrosia raises $7 million to reduce livestock methane emissions". Reuters. Retrieved 30 November 2022.
  37. ^ P.PSH.1353 - Effect of Asparagopsis extract in a canola oil carrier for long-fed Wagyu cattle, Fran Cowley et al, study, Meat & Livestock Australia, 2023-07-10
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