Turks in Algeria
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The Turks in Algeria, also commonly referred to as Algerian Turks,[1][2][3][4][5] Algerian-Turkish[6][7] Algero-Turkish[8] and Turkish-Algerians[9] were the ethnic Turkish and renegades who emigrated to Algeria during the Ottoman period. A significant number of Turks intermarried with the native population, and the male offspring of these marriages were referred to as Kouloughlis (Turkish: kuloğlu) due to their mixed Turkish and central Maghrebi heritage.[10][11] However, in general, intermarriage was discouraged, in order to preserve the "Turkishness" of the community.[12] Consequently, the terms "Turks" and "Kouloughlis" have traditionally been used to distinguish between those of full and partial Turkish ancestry.[13]
History
[edit]Ottoman era (1515–1830)
[edit]
The foundation of Ottoman Algeria was directly linked to the establishment of the Ottoman province (beylerbeylik) of the Maghreb at the beginning of the 16th century.[14] At the time, fearing that their city would fall into Spanish hands, the inhabitants of Algiers called upon Ottoman corsairs for help.[14] Headed by Oruç Reis and his brother Hayreddin Barbarossa, they took over the rule of the city and started to expand their territory into the surrounding areas. Sultan Selim I (r. 1512–20) agreed to assume control of the Maghreb regions ruled by Hayreddin as a province, granting the rank of governor-general (beylerbey) to Hayreddin. In addition, the Sultan sent 2,000 janissaries, accompanied by about 4,000 volunteers to the newly established Ottoman province of the Maghreb, whose capital was to be the city of Algiers.[14] These Turks, mainly from Anatolia, called each other "yoldaş" (a Turkish word meaning "comrade") and called their sons born of unions with local women "Kuloğlus", which implied that they considered their children's status as that of the Sultan's servants.[14] Likewise, to indicate in the registers that a certain person is an offspring of a Turk and a local woman, the note "ibn al-turki" (or "kuloglu") was added to his name.[15]
The exceptionally-high number of Turks greatly affected the character of the city of Algiers and that of the province at large. In 1587, the province was divided into three different provinces, which were established where the modern states of Algeria, Libya and Tunisia were to emerge. Each of the provinces was headed by a Pasha sent from Constantinople for a three-year term. The division of the Maghreb launched the process that led eventually to the janissary corps' rule over the province.[16] From the end of the 16th century, Algiers's Ottoman elite chose to emphasise its Turkish identity and to nurture its Turkish character to a point at which it became an ideology.[16]
The lifestyle, language, religion, and area of origin of the Ottoman elite's members created remarkable differences between the Algerian Ottoman elite and the indigenous population.[17] For example, members of the elite adhered to Hanafi law while the rest of the population subscribed to the Maliki school.[17] Most of the elites originated from non-Arab regions of the Empire. Furthermore, most members of the elite spoke Ottoman Turkish while the local population spoke Algerian Arabic and even differed from the rest of the population in their dress.[17]
Recruiting the military-administrative elite
[edit]From its establishment, the military-administrative elite worked to reinvigorate itself by enlisting volunteers from non-Arab regions of the Ottoman Empire, mainly from Anatolia.[15] Hence, local recruiting of Arabs was almost unheard of and during the 18th century a more or less permanent network of recruiting officers was kept in some coastal Anatolian cities and on some of the islands of the Aegean Sea.[18] The recruitment policy was therefore one of the means employed to perpetuate the Turkishness of the Ottoman elite and was practiced until the fall of the province in 1830.[18]
Marriages to local women and the Kuloğlus
[edit]
During the 18th century, the militia practiced a restrictive policy on marriages between its members and local women. A married soldier would lose his right of residence in one of the city's eight barracks and the daily ration of bread to which he was entitled. He would also lose his right to purchase a variety of products at a preferential price.[18] Nonetheless, the militia's marriage policy made clear distinctions among holders of different ranks: the higher the rank, the more acceptable the marriage of its holder.[12] This policy can be understood as part of the Ottoman elite's effort to perpetuate its Turkishness and to maintain its segregation from the rest of the population.[12] Furthermore, the militia's marriage policy, in part, emerged from fear of an increase in the number of the kuloğlus.[20]
The kuloğlus refer to the male offspring of members of the Ottoman elite and the local Algerian women.[20] Due to their link to the local Algerian population via his maternal family, the kuloğlus' loyalty to the Ottoman elite was suspected because of the fear that they might develop another loyalty and so they were considered a potential danger to the elite.[20] However, the son of a non-local woman, herself an "outsider" in the local population, represented no such danger to the Ottoman elite. Therefore, the Algerian Ottoman elite had a clear policy dictating the perpetuation of its character as a special social group, which was separated from the local population.[20]
Nonetheless, John Douglas Ruedy points out that the kuloğlus also sought to protect their Turkishness:
"Proud and distinctive appearing, Kouloughlis often pretended to speak only Turkish and insisted on worshipping in Hanafi [i.e. Ottoman-built] mosques with men of their own ethnic background. In times of emergency they were called upon to supplement the forces of the ojaq."[21]
In the neighbouring province of Tunisia, the maintenance of the Turkishness of the ruling group was not insisted upon, and the kuloğlus could reach the highest ranks of government. However, the janissary corps had lost its supremacy first to the Muradid dynasty (Murad Bey's son was appointed bey), and then to the Husainid dynasty. The Tunisian situation partly explains the continuation of the Algerian janissary corps' recruitment policy and the manifest will to distance the kuloğlus from the real centres of power.[22] Nonetheless, high-ranking kuloğlus were in the service of the ocak, in military and in administrative capacities, occupying posts explicitly considered out of bounds for them; although there were no kuloğlus who was dey during the 18th century, this seems to be the only exception.[23]
French era (1830–1962)
[edit]Once Algeria came under French colonial rule in 1830, approximately 10,000 Turks were expelled and shipped off to Smyrna; moreover, many Turks (alongside other natives) fled to other regions of the Ottoman realms, particularly to Palestine, Syria, Arabia, and Egypt.[24] Nonetheless, by 1832, many Algerian-Turkish descended families, who had not left Algeria, joined a coalition with Emir Abdelkader in order to forge the beginning of a powerful resistance movement against French colonial rule.[6]
Culture
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Due to the three centuries of Ottoman rule in Algeria, today many cultural (particularly in regards to food, religion, and dress - and to a lesser extent language), architectural, as well as musical elements of Algeria are of Turkish origin or influence.
Language
[edit]During the Ottoman era, the Ottoman Turkish language was the official governing language in the region, and the Turkish language was spoken mostly by the Algerian Turkish community.[17] However, today most Algerian Turks speak the Arabic language as their mother tongue. Nonetheless, the legacy of the Turkish language is still apparent and has influenced many words and vocabulary in Algeria. An estimated 634 Turkish words are still used in Algeria today.[26] Therefore, in Algerian Arabic it is possible for a single sentence to include an Arabic subject, a French verb, and for the predicate to be in Berber or Turkish.[27]
Moreover, families of Turkish origin have retained their Turkish family surnames; common names include Barbaros, Hayreddin, Osmanî, Stambouli, Torki, Turki, and Uluçali; job titles or functions have also become family names within the Algerian-Turkish community (such as Hazneci, Demirci, Başterzi, Silahtar).[28][29]
Religion
[edit]The Ottoman Turks brought the teaching of the Hanafi law of Sunni Islam to Algeria; consequently, their lifestyle created remarkable differences between the Ottoman Turks and the indigenous population because the ethnic Arabs and Berbers practiced the Maliki school.[17][30]
Today, the Hanafi school is still practiced among the Turkish descended families. Moreover, the Ottoman mosques in Algeria - which are still used by the Turkish minority - are distinguishable by their octagonal minarets which were built in accordance with the traditions of the Hanafi rite.[31][32]
Cuisine
[edit]Today the Turkish heritage in Algeria is most notably present in their cuisine which they have introduced to Algeria (such as Turkish coffee, Lahmacun, Böreks, desserts and pastries).[28][33]
Demographics
[edit]Areas of settlement
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During the Ottoman era, urban society in the coastal cities of Algeria evolved into an ethnic mix of Arabs, Berbers, Turks and Kouloughlis as well as other ethnic groups (Moors, and Jews).[34] Thus, the Turks settled mainly in the big cities of Algeria and formed their own Turkish quarters; remnants of these old Turkish quarters are still visible today,[35] such as in Algiers (particularly in the Casbah)[36][37] Annaba,[38] Biskra,[39] Bouïra,[40] Médéa,[41][42] Mostaganem,[42] and Oran (such as in La Moune[37] and the areas near the Hassan Basha Mosque[43]). Indeed, today, the descendants of Ottoman-Turkish settlers continue to live in the big cities.[44] In particular, the Turks have traditionally had a strong presence in the Tlemcen Province; alongside the Moors, they continue to make up a significant portion of Tlemcen's population and live within their own sectors of the city.[45][46]
The Turkish minority have traditionally also had notable populations in various other cities and towns; there is an established Turkish community in Arzew,[47] Bougie,[48] Berrouaghia, Cherchell,[49] Constantine,[48] Djidjelli,[48] Mascara, Mazagran[47] Oued Zitoun,[50] and Tebessa.[48] There is also an established community in Kabylie (such as Tizi Ouzou[51] and Zammora).
Moreover, several suburbs, towns and cities, which have been inhabited by the Turks for centuries, have been named after Ottoman rulers, Turkish families or the Turks in general, including: the Aïn El Turk district (literally "Fountain of the Turks") in Oran, the town of Aïn Torki in the Aïn Defla Province, the Aïn Turk commune in Bouïra, the town of Bir Kasdali and the Bir Kasd Ali District in the Bordj Bou Arréridj Province,[52][53] the town of Bougara and the Bougara District located in Blida Province,[54] the suburb of Hussein Dey and the Hussein Dey District in the Algiers Province, as well as the town of Salah Bey and the Salah Bey District in the Sétif Province.[55]
Diaspora
[edit]There are many Algerian Turks who have emigrated to other countries and hence make up part of Algeria's diaspora. Initially, the first wave of migration occurred in 1830 when many Turks were forced to leave the region once the French took control over Algeria; approximately 10,000 were shipped off to Turkey whilst many others migrated to other regions of the Ottoman Empire, including Palestine, Syria, Arabia, and Egypt.[24] Furthermore, some Turkish/Kouloughli families also settled in Morocco (such as in Tangier and Tétouan).[56]
Common surnames
[edit]By provenance
[edit]The following list are examples of Turkish origin surnames which express an ethnic and provenance origin from Eastern Thrace and Anatolia - regions which today form the modern borders of the Republic of Turkey:
| Surname used in Algeria | Turkish | English translation |
|---|---|---|
| Baghlali | Bağlılı | from Bağlı (in Çanakkale)[57] |
| Bayasli | Payaslı | from Payas[58] |
| Benkasdali Benkazdali |
Ben Kazdağılı | I am from Kazdağı[53][59] |
| Benmarchali | Ben Maraşlı | I am from Maraş[60] |
| Benterki | Ben Türk | I am Turk/Turkish[54] |
| Bentiurki Benturki |
Ben Türk | I am Turk/Turkish[54] |
| Ben Turkia Ben Turkiya |
Ben Türkiye | I am [from] Turkey[54] |
| Bersali Borsali Borsari Borsla |
Bursalı | from Bursa[54][61] |
| Boubiasli | Payaslı | from Payas[58] |
| Chatli | Çatlı | from Çat (in Erzurum)[62] |
| Chilali | Şileli | from Şileli (in Aydın)[63] |
| Cholli | Çullu | from Çullu (in Aydın)[63] |
| Coulourli | Kuloğlu | Kouloughli (mixed Turkish and Algerian origin)[64] |
| Dengezli Denizli Denzeli |
Denizli | from Denizli[65] |
| Dernali | Edirneli | from Edirne[66] |
| Djabali | Cebali | from Cebali (a suburb in Istanbul)[67] |
| Djeghdali | Çağataylı | Chagatai (Turkic language)[68] |
| Djitli | Çitli | from Çit (in Adana or Bursa)[69] |
| Douali | Develi | from Develi (in Kayseri)[66] |
| Guellati | Galatalı | from Galata (in Istanbul)[68] |
| Kamen | Kaman | Kaman (in Nevşehir)[70] |
| Karabaghli | Karabağlı | from Karabağ (in Konya)[70] |
| Karadaniz | Karadeniz | from the Black Sea region[70] |
| Karaman | Karaman | from Karaman[70] |
| Kasdali Kasdarli |
Kazdağılı | from Kazdağı[53] |
| Kaya Kayali |
Kayalı | from Kaya (applies to the villages in Muğla and Artvin)[53] |
| Kebzili | Gebzeli | from Gebze (in Kocaeli)[53] |
| Keicerli | Kayserili | from Kayseri[59] |
| Kermeli | Kermeli | from the Gulf of Kerme (Gökova)[53] |
| Kezdali | Kazdağılı | from Kazdağı[59] |
| Kissarli Kisserli |
Kayserili | from Kayseri[59] |
| Korghlu Korglu Koroghli Korogli |
Kuloğlu | Kouloughli (mixed Turkish and Algerian origin)[71] |
| Koudjali Kouddjali |
Kocaeli | from Kocaeli[59][64] |
| Koulali | Kulalı | from Kulalı (in Manisa)[64] |
| Kouloughli Koulougli Kouroughli Kouroughlou |
Kuloğlu | A Kouloughli (mixed Turkish and Algerian origin)[64] |
| Kozlou | Kozlu | from Kozlu (in Zonguldak)[59] |
| Manamani Manemeni Manemenni |
Menemenli | from Menemen (in Izmir)[72] |
| Mansali | Manisalı | from Manisa[72] |
| Meglali | Muğlalı | from Muğla[72] |
| Merchali Mersali |
Maraşlı | from Maraş[72] |
| Osmane Othmani |
Osman Osmanlı |
Ottoman[28] |
| Ould Zemirli Ould Zmirli |
İzmirli | from Izmir[73] |
| Rizeli | Rizeli | from Rize[74] |
| Romeili Roumili |
Rumeli | from Rumelia[74] |
| Sanderli | Çandarli | from Çandarlı[74] |
| Sandjak Sangaq |
Sancak | from [a] sanjak (an administrative unit of the Ottoman Empire)[62] |
| Satli | Çatlı | from Çat (in Erzurum)[62] |
| Sekelli | İskeleli | from Iskele (in Muğla, Seyhan, or the island of Cyprus)[62] |
| Sekli | Sekeli | from Söke (in Aydın)[62] |
| Skoudarli | Üsküdarlı | from Üsküdar (in Istanbul)[63] |
| Stamboul Stambouli |
İstanbulu | from Istanbul[75] |
| Tchambaz | Cambaz | Cambaz (in Çanakkale)[76] |
| Takarli | Taraklı | from Taraklı (in Adapazarı)[63] |
| Tchanderli Tchenderli |
Çandarlı | from Çandarlı[66][74] |
| Tekali | Tekeeli | from Teke Peninsula[75] |
| Terki Terqui |
Türki | Turkish (language)[77] |
| Terkman Terkmani |
Türkmenli | Turkmen (from Anatolia/Mesopotamia)[77] |
| Torki | Türk | Turkish[77] |
| Tourki Tourquie Turki |
Türk | Turk/Turkish[77] |
| Yarmali | Yarmalı | from Yarma (in Konya)[73] |
| Zemerli Zemirli Zmerli Zmirli |
İzmirli | from Izmir[73][78] |
| Zemir Zmir |
İzmir | Izmir[78] |
The following list are examples of Turkish origin surnames which express a provenance settlement of Turkish families in regions of Algeria:
| Surname used in Algeria | Turkish | Meaning in English |
|---|---|---|
| Tlemsanili Tilimsani |
Tilimsanılı | from Tlemcen[77] |
The following list are examples of Turkish origin surnames traditionally used by Turkish families in Constantine:
Acheuk-Youcef,[55] Ali Khodja,[55] Bachtarzi,[55] Benabdallah Khodja,[55] Benelmadjat,[55] Bestandji,[55] Bendali Braham,[55] Bentchakar,[55] Bensakelbordj,[55] Bentchikou,[55] Khaznadar,[55] Salah Bey,[55] Tchanderli Braham.[55]
By occupation
[edit]The following list are examples of some Turkish origin surnames which express the traditional occupation of Turkish families which settled in Algeria:
| Surname used in Algeria | Turkish | English translation |
|---|---|---|
| Agha | ağa | agha[79] |
| Ahtchi | ahçı, aşçı | cook, keeper of restaurant[79] |
| Anberdji | ambarcı | storekeeper[79] |
| Aoulak | ulak | messenger, courier[57] |
| Arbadji | arabacı | driver[79] |
| Atchi | atçı | horse breeder[79] |
| Bacha | paşa | a pasha[80] |
| Bachagha | başağa | head agha[80] |
| Bachchaouch | başçavuş | sergeant major[80] |
| Bachesais | başseyis | head stableman[80] |
| Bachtaftar | başdefterdar | treasurer[80] |
| Bachtarzi | baş terzi | chief tailor[80] |
| Bachtoubdji | baştopçu | chief cannoneer, artilleryman[80] |
| Baldji | balcı | maker or seller of honey[80] |
| Bazarbacha Bazarbarchi |
pazarbaşı | head of bazaar[58] |
| Benabadji | ben abacı | [I am a] maker or seller of garments[81] |
| Benchauch | ben çavuş | [I am a] sergeant[60] |
| Benchoubane | ben çoban | [I am a] shepherd[54] |
| Bendamardji | ben demirci | [I am a] metalworker[81][66] |
| Bendali | ben deli | [I am a] deli (Ottoman troops)[81] |
| Benlagha | ben ağa | [I am a] agha[60] |
| Benstaali | ben usta | [I am a] master, workman, craftsman[60] |
| Bentobdji | ben topçu | [I am a] cannoneer[54] |
| Bestandji Bostandji |
bostancı | bostandji[61] |
| Bouchakdji | bıçakçı | cutler[76] |
| Boudjakdji | ocakçı | chimney sweep[76] |
| Boyagi | boyacı | painter[61] |
| Chalabi Challabi |
çelebi | educated person, gentlemen[76] |
| Chaouche | çavuş | sergeant[62] |
| Chembaz Chembazi |
cambaz | acrobat[63] |
| Damardji Damerdji |
demirci | metalworker[81][66] |
| Debladji | tavlacı | stable boy or backgammon player[65] |
| Dey | dayı | officer or maternal uncle[65] |
| Djadouadji | kahveci | coffee maker or seller[82] |
| Djaidji | çaycı | tea seller[82] |
| Doumandji | dümenci | helmsman[82] |
| Doumardji | tımarcı | stableman[67] |
| Dumangi | dümenci | helmsman[82] |
| Dumargi | tımarcı | stableman[67] |
| Fenardji | fenerci | lighthouse keeper[67] |
| Fernakdji | fırıncı | baker[67] |
| Hazerchi | hazırcı | seller of ready-made clothing[69] |
| Kahouadji | kahveci | café owner or coffee maker/grower[69] |
| Kalaidji | kalaycı | tinner[70] |
| Kaouadji | kahveci | café owner or coffee maker/grower[69] |
| Kasbadji | kasapcı | butcher[53] |
| Kassab | Kasap | butcher[53] |
| Kaznadji | hazinedar | keeper of a treasury[53] |
| Kebabdji | kebapçı | kebab seller[83] |
| Kehouadji | kahveci | café owner or coffee maker/grower[53] |
| Ketrandji | katrancı | tar seller[59] |
| Khandji | hancı | innkeeper[69] |
| Khaznadar | hazinedar | keeper of a treasury[69] |
| Khaznadji | hazinedar | keeper of a treasury[83] |
| Khedmadji | hizmetçi | maid, helper[83] |
| Khodja Khoudja |
hoca | teacher[83] |
| Louldji | lüleci | maker or seller of pipes[72] |
| Koumdadji | komando | commando[64] |
| Moumdji Moumedji |
mumcu | candle maker[84] |
| Ouldchakmadji | çakmakçı | maker or seller of flints/ maker or repairer of flintlock guns[84] |
| Nefradji | nüfreci | prepares amulets[84] |
| Pacha | paşa | a pasha[84] |
| Rabadji | arabacı | driver[64] |
| Rais | reis | chief, leader[64] |
| Saboudji Saboundji |
sabuncu | maker or seller of soap[74] |
| Selmadji | silmeci | cleaner or to measure[63] |
| Serkadji | sirkeci | maker or seller of vinegar[63] |
| Slahdji | silahçı | gunsmith[63] |
| Staali | usta | master, workman, craftsman[75] |
| Tchambaz | cambaz | acrobat[76] |
Other surnames
[edit]| Surname used in Algeria | Turkish | English translation |
|---|---|---|
| Arslan | aslan | a lion[79] |
| Arzouli | arzulu | desirous, ambitious[79] |
| Baba Babali |
baba | a father[57] |
| Badji | bacı | elder sister[57] |
| Bektach | bektaş | member of the Bektashi Order[58] |
| Belbey | bey | mister, gentlemen[58] |
| Belbiaz | beyaz | white[58] |
| Benchicha | ben şişe | [I am] a bottle[60] |
| Benhadji | ben hacı | [I am] a Hadji[81] |
| Benkara | ben Qāra | From Black Sea region in Anatolia [60] |
| Bensari | ben sarı | [I am] blonde[60] |
| Bentobal Bentobbal |
ben topal | [I am] crippled[54] |
| Bermak | parmak | finger[54] |
| Beiram Biram |
bayram | holiday, festival[61] |
| Beyaz | beyaz | white[54] |
| Bougara Boulkara |
bu kara | [this is] dark[54][76] |
| Boukendjakdji | kancık | mean[76] |
| Caliqus | çalıkuşu | goldcrest[76] |
| Chalabi Challabi |
çelebi | educated person, gentlemen[74] |
| Chelbi | çelebi | educated person, gentlemen[62] |
| Cherouk | çürük | rotten[63] |
| Dali Dalibey Dalisaus |
deli | brave, crazy[66] |
| Damir | demir | metal[66] |
| Daouadji | davacı | litigant[66] |
| Deramchi | diremci | currency[65] |
| Djabali | çelebi | educated person, gentlemen[67] |
| Doumaz | duymaz | deaf[67] |
| Eski | eski | old[67] |
| Gaba | kaba | rough, heavy[67] |
| Goutchouk | küçük | small, little[69][71] |
| Gueddjali | gacal | domestic[68] |
| Guendez | gündüz | daytime[68] |
| Guermezli | görmezli | blind[69][71] |
| Guertali | kartal | eagle[69] |
| Hadji | hacı | Hadji[69] |
| Hidouk | haydut | bandit[83] |
| Ioldach | yoldaş | companion, comrade[84] |
| Kara | kara | dark[84] |
| Karabadji | kara bacı | dark sister[70] |
| Kardache | kardeş | brother[70] |
| Karkach | karakaş | dark eyebrows[84] |
| Kermaz | görmez | blind[69][71] |
| Kerroudji | kurucu | founder, builder, veteran[59] |
| Kertali | kartal | eagle[59] |
| Koutchouk | küçük | small, little[69][71] |
| Lalali Lalili |
laleli | tulip[71] |
| Maldji | malcı | cattle producer[84] |
| Mestandji | mestan | drunk[84] |
| Oldach | yoldaş | companion, comrade[84] |
| Oualan | oğlan | boy[73] |
| Ouksel | yüksel | to succeed, achieve[73] |
| Ourak | orak | sickle[73] |
| Salakdji | salakça | silly[74] |
| Salaouatchi Salouatchi |
salavatçaı | prayer[74] |
| Sari | sarı | yellow or blond[62] |
| Sarmachek | sarmaşık | vine[62] |
| Sersar Sersoub |
serseri | layabout, vagrant[63] |
| Tache | taş | stone, pebble[76] |
| Tarakli | taraklı | having a comb, crested[76] |
| Tchalabi | çelebi | educated person, gentlemen[76] |
| Tchalikouche | çalıkuşu | goldcrest[76] |
| Tenbel | tembel | lazy[77] |
| Tobal Toubal |
topal | cripple[77] |
| Yataghan Yataghen |
yatağan | yatagan[73] |
| Yazli | yazılı | written[73] |
| Yekkachedji | yakışmak | to suit[78] |
| Yesli | yaslı | mourning[78] |
| Yoldas | yoldaş | companion, comrade[84] |
See also
[edit]- Algeria–Turkey relations
- List of Algerians of Turkish origin
- Kouloughli
- Ottoman Algeria
- Aïn El Turk
- List of Pashas and Deys of Algiers
- Turkish minorities in the former Ottoman Empire
- Turks in France
Notes
[edit]^ a: "Kouloughlis" refers to the offspring (or descendants) of Turkish fathers and Algerian mothers.[21]
References
[edit]- ^ de Tocqueville, Alexis (2001), "Second Letter on Algeria", Writings on Empire and Slavery, Johns Hopkins University Press, p. 15, ISBN 0801865093
- ^ Garcés, María Antonia (2005), Cervantes in Algiers: A Captive's Tale, Vanderbilt University Press, p. 122, ISBN 0826514707
- ^ Jaques, Tony (2007), Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: A-E, Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 32, ISBN 978-0313335372
- ^ Fumerton, Patricia (2006), Unsettled: The Culture of Mobility and the Working Poor in Early Modern England, University of Chicago Press, p. 85, ISBN 0226269558
- ^ Today's Zaman. "Turks in northern Africa yearn for Ottoman ancestors". Archived from the original on 2011-03-13. Retrieved 2012-03-18.
- ^ a b Knauss, Peter R. (1987), The Persistence of Patriarchy: Class, Gender, and Ideology in Twentieth Century Algeria, Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 19, ISBN 0275926923
- ^ Killian, Caitlin (2006), North African Women in France: Gender, Culture, and Identity, Stanford University Press, p. 145, ISBN 0804754209
- ^ Murray, Roger; Wengraf, Tom (1963), "The Algerian Revolution (Part 1)", New Left Review, 1 (22): 41
- ^ McMurray, David Andrew (1992), "The Contemporary Culture of Nador, Morocco, and the Impact of International Labor Migration", University of Texas: 390
- ^ Stone, Martin (1997), The Agony of Algeria, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, p. 29, ISBN 1-85065-177-9.
- ^ Milli Gazete. "Levanten Türkler". Archived from the original on 2010-02-23. Retrieved 2012-03-19.
- ^ a b c Shuval 2000, 330.
- ^ Miltoun, Francis (1985), The spell of Algeria and Tunisia, Darf Publishers, p. 129, ISBN 1850770603,
Throughout North Africa, from Oran to Tunis, one encounters everywhere, in the town as in the country, the distinct traits which mark the seven races which make up the native population: the Moors, the Berbers, the Arabs, the Negreos, the Jews, the Turks and the Kouloughlis… descendants of Turks and Arab women.
- ^ a b c d Shuval 2000, 325.
- ^ a b Shuval 2000, 328.
- ^ a b Shuval 2000, 326.
- ^ a b c d e Shuval 2000, 327.
- ^ a b c Shuval 2000, 329.
- ^ Alexis Tocqueville, Second Letter on Algeria (August 22, 1837), Bronner, Stephen Eric; Thompson, Michael (eds.), The Logos Reader: Rational Radicalism and the Future of Politics, (University of Kentucky Press, 2006), 205;"This bey, contrary to all custom, was coulougli, meaning the son of a Turkish father and an Arab mother."
- ^ a b c d Shuval 2000, 331.
- ^ a b Ruedy 2005, 35.
- ^ Shuval 2000, 332.
- ^ Shuval 2000, 333.
- ^ a b Kateb, Kamel (2001), Européens: "Indigènes" et juifs en Algérie (1830-1962) : Représentations et Réalités des Populations, INED, pp. 50–53, ISBN 273320145X
- ^ a b Yenişehirlioğlu, Filiz (1989), Ottoman architectural works outside Turkey, T.C. Dışişleri Bakanlığı, p. 34, ISBN 9759550105
- ^ Benrabah, Mohamed (2007), "The Language Planning Situation in Algeria", Language Planning and Policy in Africa, Vol 2, Multilingual Matters, p. 49, ISBN 978-1847690111
- ^ Algerian patois delights and disturbs, Al Jazeera, 2006
- ^ a b c Slate Afrique. "Que reste-t-il des Turcs et des Français en Algérie?". Retrieved 2013-09-08.
- ^ Al Turkiyya. "Cezayir deki Türkiye". Archived from the original on 2013-09-27. Retrieved 2013-09-17.
- ^ Gordon, Louis A.; Oxnevad, Ian (2016), Middle East Politics for the New Millennium: A Constructivist Approach, Lexington Books, p. 72, ISBN 978-0739196984,
An Ottoman military class that separated itself from the general Algerian population through language, dress and religious affiliation... Unlike the Maliki Algerian masses, the Ottoman-Algerians remained affiliated with the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence, and went to great lengths to replenish their ranks with Ottoman Turks from Anatolia...
- ^ Cantone, Cleo (2002), Making and Remaking Mosques in Senegal, BRILL, p. 174, ISBN 9004203370,
Octagonal minarets are generally an anomaly in the Maliki world associated with the square tower. Algeria, on other hand had Ottoman influence...
- ^ Migeon, Gaston; Saladin, Henri (2012), Art of Islam, Parkstone International, p. 28, ISBN 978-1780429939,
It was not until the 16th century, when the protectorate of the Grand Master appointed Turkish governors to the regencies of Algiers and Tunis, that some of them constructed mosques according to the Hanefit example. The resulting structures had octagonal minarets...
- ^ Oakes 2008, 23.
- ^ Stone, Martin (1997), The Agony of Algeria, C. Hurst & Co. Publishers, p. 29, ISBN 1-85065-177-9.
- ^ Oakes 2008, 5.
- ^ Oakes 2008, 5 and 61.
- ^ a b Shrader, Charles R. (1999), The First Helicopter War: Logistics and Mobility in Algeria, 1954-1962, Greenwood Publishing Group, p. 23, ISBN 0275963888
- ^ Oakes 2008, 179.
- ^ Oakes 2008, 170.
- ^ Oakes 2008, 114.
- ^ Les Enfants de Médéa et du Titteri. "Médéa". Retrieved 2012-04-13.
- ^ a b Bosworth, C.E; Donzel, E. Van; Lewis, B.; Pellat, C.H., eds. (1980), "Kul-Oghlu", The Encyclopaedia of Islam, vol. 5, Brill, p. 366
- ^ Huebner, Jeff (2014), "Oran", in Ring, Trudy (ed.), Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Places, Routledge, p. 560, ISBN 978-1134259861
- ^ Oxford Business Group (2008), The Report: Algeria 2008, Oxford Business Group, p. 10, ISBN 978-1-902339-09-2,
...the Algerian population reached 34.8 million in January 2006...Algerians of Turkish descent still represent 5% of the population and live mainly in the big cities [accounting to 1.74 million]
{{citation}}:|last=has generic name (help) - ^ Appiah, Anthony; Gates, Henry Louis (2010), Encyclopedia of Africa, Volume 1, Oxford University Press, p. 475, ISBN 978-0-19-533770-9.
- ^ Britannica (2012), Tlemcen, Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online
- ^ a b Institut des hautes-études marocaines (1931). Hespéris: archives berbères et bulletin de l'Institut des hautes-études marocaines. Vol. 13. Emile Larose. Retrieved 2015-04-01.
- ^ a b c d Garvin, James Louis (1926), Encyclopædia Britannica, vol. 1 (13 ed.), Encyclopædia Britannica, p. 94
- ^ Vogelsang-Eastwood, Gillian (2016), "Embroidery from Algeria", Encyclopedia of Embroidery from the Arab World, Bloomsbury Publishing, p. 226, ISBN 978-0857853974.
- ^ Rozet, Claude (1850), Algérie, Firmin-Didot, p. 107.
- ^ Ameur, Kamel Nait (2007), "Histoire de Tizi Ouzou : L'indélébile présence turque", Racines-Izuran, 17 (5)
- ^ Cheriguen, Foudil (1993), Toponymie algérienne des lieux habités (les noms composés), Épigraphe, pp. 82–83.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Parzymies 1985, 61.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Parzymies 1985, 47.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Zemouli, Yasmina (2004), "Le nom patronymique d'après l'état civil en Algérie", in Qashshī, Fāṭimah al-Zahrāʼ (ed.), Constantine: une ville, des heritages, Média-plus, p. 87, ISBN 996192214X
- ^ Koroghli, Ammar (2010), EL DJAZAÎR : De la Régence à l'Istiqlal, Sétif Info.
- ^ a b c d Parzymies 1985, 42.
- ^ a b c d e f Parzymies 1985, 44.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Parzymies 1985, 62.
- ^ a b c d e f g Parzymies 1985, 46.
- ^ a b c d Parzymies 1985, 48.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Parzymies 1985, 65.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Parzymies 1985, 66.
- ^ a b c d e f g Parzymies 1985, 63.
- ^ a b c d Parzymies 1985, 51.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Parzymies 1985, 50.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Parzymies 1985, 52.
- ^ a b c d Parzymies 1985, 54.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Parzymies 1985, 55.
- ^ a b c d e f g Parzymies 1985, 60.
- ^ a b c d e f Parzymies 1985, 57.
- ^ a b c d e Parzymies 1985, 58.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Parzymies 1985, 69.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Parzymies 1985, 64.
- ^ a b c Parzymies 1985, 67.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Parzymies 1985, 49.
- ^ a b c d e f g Parzymies 1985, 68.
- ^ a b c d Parzymies 1985, 70.
- ^ a b c d e f g Parzymies 1985, 41.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Parzymies 1985, 43.
- ^ a b c d e Parzymies 1985, 45.
- ^ a b c d Parzymies 1985, 53.
- ^ a b c d e Parzymies 1985, 56.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k Parzymies 1985, 59.
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