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Abundance of elements in Earth's crust

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The abundance of elements in Earth's crust is shown in tabulated form with the estimated crustal abundance for each chemical element shown as mg/kg, or parts per million (ppm) by mass (10,000 ppm = 1%).

Reservoirs

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The Earth's crust is one "reservoir" for measurements of abundance. A reservoir is any large body to be studied as unit, like the ocean, atmosphere, mantle or crust. Different reservoirs may have different relative amounts of each element due to different chemical or mechanical processes involved in the creation of the reservoir.[1]: 18 

Difficulties in measurement

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Estimates of elemental abundance are difficult because (a) the composition of the upper and lower crust are quite different, and (b) the composition of the continental crust can vary drastically by locality.[2] The composition of the Earth changed after its formation due to loss of volatile compounds, melting and recrystalization, selective loss of some elements to the deep interior, and erosion by water.[3]: 55  The lanthanides are especially difficult to measure accurately.[4]

Graphs of abundance vs atomic number

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Abundance (atom fraction) of the chemical elements in Earth's upper continental crust as a function of atomic number;[5] siderophiles shown in yellow

Graphs of abundance against atomic number can reveal patterns relating abundance to stellar nucleosynthesis and geochemistry. The alternation of abundance between even and odd atomic number is known as the Oddo–Harkins rule. The rarest elements in the crust are not the heaviest, but are rather the siderophile elements (iron-loving) in the Goldschmidt classification of elements. These have been depleted by being relocated deeper into the Earth's core; their abundance in meteoroids is higher. Tellurium and selenium are concentrated as sulfides in the core and have also been depleted by preaccretional sorting in the nebula that caused them to form volatile hydrogen selenide and hydrogen telluride.[6]

List of abundance by element

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This table gives the estimated abundance in parts per million by mass of elements in the continental crust; values of the less abundant elements may vary with location by several orders of magnitude.[7]

Colour indicates each element's Goldschmidt classification:

  Lithophile
  Siderophile
  Atmophile
  Chalcophile
  Trace
Abundance of chemical elements in Earth's (continental) crust
Z Element Symbol Goldschmidt
classification 		Abundance (ppm)[7] Production
tonnes/year[8]
8 oxygen O Lithophile 461,000 (46.1%) 10,335,000[9]
14 silicon Si Lithophile 282,000 (28.2%) 7,200,000
13 aluminium Al Lithophile 82,300 (8.23%) 57,600,000
26 iron Fe Siderophile 56,300 (5.63%) 1,150,000,000
20 calcium Ca Lithophile 41,500 (4.15%) 18,000
11 sodium Na Lithophile 23,600 (2.36%) 255,000,000
12 magnesium Mg Lithophile 23,300 (2.33%) 27,700,000
19 potassium K Lithophile 20,900 (2.09%) 53,200,000[10]
22 titanium Ti Lithophile 5,650 (0.565%) 6,600,000
1 hydrogen H Atmophile 1,400 (0.14%) 75,000,000[11][12]
15 phosphorus P Lithophile 1,050 (0.105%) 226,000,000[13]
25 manganese Mn Lithophile 950 (0.095%) 16,000,000
9 fluorine F Lithophile 585 (0.0585%) 17,000
56 barium Ba Lithophile 425 (0.0425%) 6,000,000[14]
38 strontium Sr Lithophile 370 (0.037%) 350,000
16 sulfur S Chalcophile 350 (0.035%) 69,300,000
6 carbon C Atmophile 200 (0.02%) 9,700,000,000
40 zirconium Zr Lithophile 165 (0.0165%) 1,460,000
17 chlorine Cl Lithophile 145 (0.0145%) 71,250,000[15]
23 vanadium V Lithophile 120 (0.012%) 76,000
24 chromium Cr Lithophile 102 (0.0102%) 26,000,000
37 rubidium Rb Lithophile 90 (0.009%) 2
28 nickel Ni Siderophile 84 (0.0084%) 2,250,000
30 zinc Zn Chalcophile 70 (0.007%) 11,900,000
58 cerium Ce Lithophile 66.5 (0.00665%) 24,000[16]
29 copper Cu Chalcophile 60 (0.006%) 19,400,000
60 neodymium Nd Lithophile 41.5 (0.00415%) 7,000[17]
57 lanthanum La Lithophile 39 (0.0039%) 12,500[18]
39 yttrium Y Lithophile 33 (0.0033%) 6,000
27 cobalt Co Siderophile 25 (0.0025%) 123,000
21 scandium Sc Lithophile 22 (0.0022%) 14[19]
3 lithium Li Lithophile 20 (0.002%) 35,000
41 niobium Nb Lithophile 20 (0.002%) 64,000
7 nitrogen N Atmophile 19 (0.0019%) 140,000,000
31 gallium Ga Chalcophile 19 (0.0019%) 315
82 lead Pb Chalcophile 14 (0.0014%) 4,820,000
5 boron B Lithophile 10 (0.001%) 9,400,000
90 thorium Th Lithophile 9.6 (0.00096%) 5,000[20]
59 praseodymium Pr Lithophile 9.2 (0.00092%) 2,500[21]
62 samarium Sm Lithophile 7.05 (0.000705%) 700[22]
64 gadolinium Gd Lithophile 6.2 (0.00062%) 400[23]
66 dysprosium Dy Lithophile 5.2 (0.00052%)
68 erbium Er Lithophile 3.5 (0.00035%) 500[24]
18 argon Ar Atmophile 3.5 (0.00035%)
70 ytterbium Yb Lithophile 3.2 (0.00032%)
72 hafnium Hf Lithophile 3.0 (0.0003%)
55 caesium Cs Lithophile 3.0 (0.0003%)
4 beryllium Be Lithophile 2.8 (0.00028%) 220
92 uranium U Lithophile 2.7 (0.00027%) 74,119
35 bromine Br Lithophile 2.4 (0.00024%) 391,000
50 tin Sn Chalcophile 2.3 (0.00023%) 280,000
73 tantalum Ta Lithophile 2.0 (0.0002%) 1,100
63 europium Eu Lithophile 2.0 (0.0002%)
33 arsenic As Chalcophile 1.8 (0.00018%) 36,500
32 germanium Ge Chalcophile 1.5 (0.00015%) 155
74 tungsten W Siderophile 1.25 (0.000125%) 86,400
67 holmium Ho Lithophile 1.3 (0.00013%)
42 molybdenum Mo Siderophile 1.2 (0.00012%) 227,000
65 terbium Tb Lithophile 1.2 (0.00012%)
81 thallium Tl Chalcophile 0.85 (8.5×10−5%) 10
71 lutetium Lu Lithophile 0.8 (8×10−5%)
69 thulium Tm Lithophile 0.52 (5.2×10−5%)
53 iodine I Lithophile 0.45 (4.5×10−5%) 31,600
49 indium In Chalcophile 0.25 (2.5×10−5%) 655
51 antimony Sb Chalcophile 0.2 (2×10−5%) 130,000
48 cadmium Cd Chalcophile 0.15 (1.5×10−5%) 23,000
80 mercury Hg Chalcophile 0.085 (8.5×10−6%) 4,500
47 silver Ag Chalcophile 0.075 (7.5×10−6%) 27,000
34 selenium Se Chalcophile 0.05 (5×10−6%) 2,200
46 palladium Pd Siderophile 0.015 (1.5×10−6%) 208
83 bismuth Bi Chalcophile 0.0085 (8.5×10−7%) 10,200
2 helium He Atmophile 0.008 (8×10−7%)
10 neon Ne Atmophile 0.005 (5×10−7%)
78 platinum Pt Siderophile 0.005 (5×10−7%) 172
79 gold Au Siderophile 0.004 (4×10−7%) 3,100
76 osmium Os Siderophile 0.0015 (1.5×10−7%)
52 tellurium Te Chalcophile 0.001 (1×10−7%) 2,200
44 ruthenium Ru Siderophile 0.001 (1×10−7%)
77 iridium Ir Siderophile 0.001 (1×10−7%)
45 rhodium Rh Siderophile 0.001 (1×10−7%)
75 rhenium Re Siderophile 0.0007 (7×10−8%) 47.2
36 krypton Kr Atmophile 0.0001 (1×10−8%)
54 xenon Xe Atmophile 3×10−5 (3×10−9%)
91 protactinium Pa trace 1.4×10−6 (1.4×10−10%)
88 radium Ra trace 9×10−7 (9×10−11%)
89 actinium Ac trace 5.5×10−10 (6×10−14%)
84 polonium Po trace 2×10−10 (2×10−14%)
86 radon Rn trace 4×10−13 (4×10−17%)
43 technetium Tc trace
61 promethium Pm trace
85 astatine At trace
87 francium Fr trace
93 neptunium Np trace
94 plutonium Pu trace

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Albarède, Francis (2009-06-25). Geochemistry: An Introduction (2 ed.). Cambridge University Press. doi:10.1017/cbo9780511807435.005. ISBN 978-0-521-88079-4.
  2. ^ Kring, David A. "Composition of Earth's continental crust as inferred from the compositions of impact melt sheets". 28th Annual Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, March 17–21, 1997, Houston, TX, p. 763. Vol. 28. 1997.
  3. ^ Suess, Hans E.; Urey, Harold C. (1956-01-01). "Abundances of the Elements". Reviews of Modern Physics. 28: 53–74. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.28.53. ISSN 0034-6861.
  4. ^ Surendra P. Verma, E. Santoyo & Fernando Velasco-Tapia (2002) "Statistical Evaluation of Analytical Methods for the Determination of Rare-Earth Elements in Geological Materials and Implications for Detection Limits", International Geology Review, 44:4, 287–335, doi:10.2747/0020-6814.44.4.287 (note geochemists refer to lanthanides as rare earth per ref.).
  5. ^ "Rare Earth Elements—Critical Resources for High Technology: USGS Fact Sheet 087-02". pubs.usgs.gov. Retrieved 2024-03-23.
  6. ^ Anderson, Don L.; "Chemical Composition of the Mantle", Theory of the Earth, pp. 147–175 ISBN 0865421234
  7. ^ a b "Abundance of Elements in the Earth's Crust and in the Sea", CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 97th edition (2016–2017), sec. 14, pg. 17
  8. ^ 2016 extraction per Commodity Statistics and Information. USGS. All production numbers are for mines, except for Al, Cd, Fe, Ge, In, N, Se (plants, refineries), S (all forms) and As, Br, Mg, Si (unspecified). Data for B, K, Ti, Y are given not for the pure element but for the most common oxide, data for Na and Cl are for NaCl. For many elements like Si, Al, data are ambiguous (many forms produced) and are taken for the pure element. U data is pure element required for consumption by current reactor fleet [1] Archived 2017-10-01 at the Wayback Machine. WNA.
  9. ^ "Oxygen Supply Chain – Executive Summary" (PDF). Retrieved 2024-05-23.
  10. ^ Canada, Natural Resources (2018-01-23). "Potash facts". natural-resources.canada.ca. Retrieved 2024-05-23.
  11. ^ "Hydrogen". www.irena.org. 2024-05-29. Retrieved 2024-05-23.
  12. ^ "Hydrogen Production". Retrieved 2024-05-23.
  13. ^ "Phosphate rock production capacity worldwide". Statista. Retrieved 2024-05-23.
  14. ^ "Barium - Element information, properties and uses | Periodic Table". www.rsc.org. Retrieved 2024-05-23.
  15. ^ "Chlorine global market volume 2030". Statista. Retrieved 2024-05-23.
  16. ^ MMTA. "Cerium". MMTA. Retrieved 2024-05-23.
  17. ^ "Neodymium - Elements Database". www.elementsdatabase.com. Retrieved 2024-05-23.
  18. ^ MMTA. "Lanthanum". MMTA. Retrieved 2024-05-23.
  19. ^ Phoung, Sinoun; Williams, Eric; Gaustad, Gabrielle; Gupta, Ajay (2023). "Exploring global supply and demand of scandium oxide in 2030". Journal of Cleaner Production. 401. doi:10.1016/j.jclepro.2023.136673. Retrieved 2024-05-23.
  20. ^ Emsley2010-09-01T00:00:00+01:00, John. "Thorium". RSC Education. Retrieved 2024-05-23.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  21. ^ "Praseodymium (Pr) - Chemical properties, Health and Environmental effects". www.lenntech.com. Retrieved 2024-05-23.
  22. ^ MMTA. "Samarium". MMTA. Retrieved 2024-05-23.
  23. ^ "Gadolinium (Gd)". RWMM. Retrieved 2024-05-23.
  24. ^ "Erbium (Er) - Chemical properties, Health and Environmental effects". www.lenntech.com. Retrieved 2024-05-23.

Further reading

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