1979 Soviet nuclear tests
| 1979 | |
|---|---|
 Nuclear blast animation | |
| Information | |
| Country | Soviet Union |
| Test site | Atyrau, Kazakhstan; Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan; Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan; Donetsk, Ukraine; Khanty-Mansi, Russia; Krasnoyarsk, Russia; NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia; Sakha, Russia; Sary-Uzen/Murzhik, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan |
| Period | 1979 |
| Number of tests | 31 |
| Test type | underground shaft, tunnel |
| Max. yield | 150 kilotonnes of TNT (630 TJ) |
| Test series chronology | |
The Soviet Union's 1979 nuclear test series[1] was a group of 31 nuclear tests conducted in 1979. These tests [note 1] followed the 1978 Soviet nuclear tests series and preceded the 1980 Soviet nuclear tests series.
| Name [note 2] | Date time (UT) | Local time zone[note 3][2] | Location[note 4] | Elevation + height [note 5] | Delivery, [note 6] Purpose [note 7] |
Device[note 8] | Yield[note 9] | Fallout[note 10] | References | Notes |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 512 Galit A2.6 (Halite) | 10 January 1979 08:00:00.0 | SHET (5 hrs) |
Atyrau, Kazakhstan: A-II-7 47°54′32″N 47°54′43″E / 47.909°N 47.912°E | – 600 m (2,000 ft) | underground shaft, cavity excavation |
500 t | [1][3][4][5][6] | Create reservoirs for gas storage. A fizzle. | ||
| 513 Galit A8 (Halite) - 1 | 17 January 1979 07:59:58.5 | SHET (5 hrs) |
Atyrau, Kazakhstan: A-VIII 47°55′07″N 48°07′26″E / 47.91873°N 48.12376°E | – 1,000 m (3,300 ft) | underground shaft, cavity excavation |
12 kt | Venting detected | [1][4][5][6][7] | Create reservoirs for gas storage. | |
| 513 Galit A8 (Halite) - 2 | 17 January 1979 07:59:58.5 | SHET (5 hrs) |
Atyrau, Kazakhstan: A-VIII 47°55′07″N 48°07′26″E / 47.91873°N 48.12376°E | + | underground shaft, cavity excavation |
56 kt | Venting detected | [1][3][5][6][7] | Create reservoirs for gas storage. | |
| 514 | 1 February 1979 04:13:00.17 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1006 50°05′09″N 78°51′05″E / 50.08586°N 78.85137°E | 330 m (1,080 ft) + | underground shaft, weapons development |
18 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 515 - 1 | 16 February 1979 04:04:00.5 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Sary-Uzen/Murzhik, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 109 49°57′56″N 77°40′15″E / 49.96553°N 77.67082°E | 460 m (1,510 ft) + | underground shaft, weapons development |
23 kt | [1][4][5][6][8] | |||
| 515 - 2 | 16 February 1979 04:04:01 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Sary-Uzen/Murzhik, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 2803 49°57′56″N 77°40′15″E / 49.96553°N 77.67082°E | 460 m (1,510 ft) + | underground shaft, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][3][5][6][9] | |||
| 516 | 23 March 1979 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 115p 49°48′42″N 78°09′34″E / 49.81173°N 78.15933°E | 602 m (1,975 ft) + | tunnel, safety experiment |
1000 kg | [1][3][5][6][7] | |||
| 517 | 10 April 1979 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 115p 49°48′41″N 78°09′45″E / 49.81131°N 78.16243°E | 602 m (1,975 ft) + | tunnel, safety experiment |
1000 kg | [1][3][5][6][7] | |||
| 518 - 1 | 6 May 1979 03:17:00.07 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 701p 49°45′51″N 77°59′57″E / 49.7643°N 77.9993°E | 704 m (2,310 ft) + | tunnel, weapons development |
15 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 518 - 2 | 6 May 1979 03:17:00.1 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 701p 49°45′51″N 77°59′57″E / 49.7643°N 77.9993°E | 704 m (2,310 ft) + | tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][3][5][6][7] | |||
| 519 - 1 | 31 May 1979 05:55:00.05 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 141 49°49′04″N 78°04′03″E / 49.81765°N 78.06755°E | 745 m (2,444 ft) + | tunnel, weapons development |
17 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 519 - 2 | 31 May 1979 05:55:00.1 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 141 49°49′04″N 78°04′03″E / 49.81765°N 78.06755°E | 745 m (2,444 ft) + | tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][3][5][6][7] | |||
| 519 - 3 | 31 May 1979 05:55:00.1 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 141 49°49′04″N 78°04′03″E / 49.81765°N 78.06755°E | 745 m (2,444 ft) + | tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][3][5][6][7] | |||
| 519 - 4 | 31 May 1979 05:55:00 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 136p 49°49′36″N 78°04′07″E / 49.82679°N 78.06854°E | 638 m (2,093 ft) + | tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][3][5][6][7] | |||
| 520 | 12 June 1979 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 115-ppp 49°48′39″N 78°09′54″E / 49.81091°N 78.16508°E | 602 m (1,975 ft) + | tunnel, safety experiment |
1000 kg | [1][3][5][6][7] | |||
| 521 | 23 June 1979 02:57:00.11 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1223 49°54′58″N 78°50′40″E / 49.91608°N 78.84455°E | 330 m (1,080 ft) + | underground shaft, weapons development |
149 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 522 - 1 | 7 July 1979 03:46:59.87 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1225 50°02′24″N 78°59′22″E / 50.04°N 78.98957°E | 330 m (1,080 ft) + | underground shaft, weapons development |
97 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 522 - 2 | 7 July 1979 03:46:59.9 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1225 50°02′24″N 78°59′22″E / 50.04°N 78.98957°E | 330 m (1,080 ft) + | underground shaft, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][5][6][7][10] | |||
| 523 Galit A11 (Halite) - 1 | 14 July 1979 04:59:58.0 | SHET (5 hrs) |
Atyrau, Kazakhstan: A-XI 47°52′55″N 48°07′12″E / 47.88195°N 48.12012°E | – 980 m (3,220 ft) | underground shaft, cavity excavation |
7 kt | [1][3][4][5][6] | Create reservoirs for gas storage. | ||
| 523 Galit A11 (Halite) - 2 | 14 July 1979 04:59:58.0 | SHET (5 hrs) |
Atyrau, Kazakhstan: A-XI 47°52′55″N 48°07′12″E / 47.88195°N 48.12012°E | + | underground shaft, cavity excavation |
7 kt | [1][3][5][6][9] | Create reservoirs for gas storage. | ||
| 523 Galit A11 (Halite) - 3 | 14 July 1979 04:59:58.0 | SHET (5 hrs) |
Atyrau, Kazakhstan: A-XI 47°52′55″N 48°07′12″E / 47.88195°N 48.12012°E | + | underground shaft, cavity excavation |
7 kt | [1][3][5][6][9] | Create reservoirs for gas storage. | ||
| 524 | 18 July 1979 03:17:04.92 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Sary-Uzen/Murzhik, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 2613 49°55′14″N 77°48′48″E / 49.92057°N 77.81339°E | 460 m (1,510 ft) + | underground shaft, weapons development |
12 kt | [1][5][6][7][8] | |||
| 525 | 18 July 1979 03:17:04.9 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 195p 49°46′45″N 78°06′10″E / 49.7791°N 78.1027°E | 600 m (2,000 ft) + | tunnel, fundamental science |
14 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 526 - 1 | 4 August 1979 03:56:59.67 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1085 49°54′17″N 78°53′11″E / 49.90467°N 78.88634°E | 330 m (1,080 ft) + | underground shaft, weapons development |
150 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 526 - 2 | 4 August 1979 03:56:59.7 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1085 49°54′17″N 78°53′11″E / 49.90467°N 78.88634°E | 330 m (1,080 ft) + | underground shaft, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][5][6][7][10] | |||
| 527 Kimberlit 4 (Kimberlite) | 12 August 1979 18:00:00.2 | YAKT (9 hrs) |
Sakha, Russia: KM-4 61°48′11″N 122°25′48″E / 61.803°N 122.43°E | – 980 m (3,220 ft) | underground shaft, seismic sounding |
8.5 kt | [1][3][4][5][6] | Seismic probing program. | ||
| 528 - 1 | 18 August 1979 02:51:59.71 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1226 49°56′55″N 78°55′07″E / 49.9485°N 78.9185°E | 330 m (1,080 ft) + | underground shaft, weapons development |
150 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 528 - 2 | 18 August 1979 02:51:59.7 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1226 49°56′55″N 78°55′07″E / 49.9485°N 78.9185°E | 330 m (1,080 ft) + | underground shaft, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][5][6][7][10] | |||
| 529 Kimberlit 3 (Kimberlite) | 6 September 1979 18:00:00.3 | KRAT (7 hrs) |
Krasnoyarsk, Russia: KM-3 64°06′36″N 99°33′43″E / 64.11°N 99.562°E | – 600 m (2,000 ft) | underground shaft, seismic sounding |
8.5 kt | [1][3][4][5][6] | Seismic probing program. 35 km SW Tura, Krasnoyarsk. | ||
| 530 Klivazh (Cleavage) | 16 September 1979 09:00:00.0 | MSK (3 hrs) |
Donetsk, Ukraine: Yunkom Mine 48°12′48″N 38°16′54″E / 48.21336°N 38.28162°E | – 900 m (3,000 ft) | tunnel, industrial, free methane gas, to lower danger of explosion |
300 t | [1][3][5][6][9][11] | The mine resumed normal operations the following day | ||
| 531 - 1 | 24 September 1979 03:29:58.75 | MSK (3 hrs) |
NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-32 73°20′35″N 54°40′19″E / 73.343°N 54.672°E | 100 m (330 ft) – 500 m (1,600 ft) | tunnel, weapons development |
130 kt | Venting detected on site, 170 Ci (6,300 GBq) | [1][4][5][6][8] | ||
| 531 - 2 | 24 September 1979 03:29:58.8 | MSK (3 hrs) |
NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-32 73°20′35″N 54°40′19″E / 73.343°N 54.672°E | 100 m (330 ft) + | tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][3][5][6][9] | |||
| 531 - 3 | 24 September 1979 03:29:58.8 | MSK (3 hrs) |
NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-32 73°20′35″N 54°40′19″E / 73.343°N 54.672°E | 100 m (330 ft) + | tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][3][5][6][9] | |||
| 532 | 27 September 1979 04:13:00.0 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 175p 49°45′00″N 78°02′24″E / 49.75°N 78.0399°E | 682 m (2,238 ft) + | tunnel, weapon effect |
1.6 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 533 Kimberlit 1 (Kimberlite) | 4 October 1979 16:00:00.0 | SVET (5 hrs) |
Khanty-Mansi, Russia: KM-1 60°40′30″N 71°27′18″E / 60.675°N 71.455°E | – 840 m (2,760 ft) | underground shaft, seismic sounding |
22 kt | [1][3][4][5][6] | Seismic probing program. 122 km SW Surgut. | ||
| 534 Sheksna (Neva) | 7 October 1979 21:00:00.2 | YAKT (9 hrs) |
Sakha, Russia: 47 61°51′N 113°06′E / 61.85°N 113.1°E | – 1,550 m (5,090 ft) | underground shaft, oil stimulation |
15 kt | [1][3][4][5][6] | Oil recovery intensification. | ||
| 535 - 1 | 18 October 1979 04:17:00.11 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 128 49°49′12″N 78°06′01″E / 49.82°N 78.1003°E | 659 m (2,162 ft) + | tunnel, weapons development |
15 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 535 - 2 | 18 October 1979 04:17:00.1 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 128 49°49′12″N 78°06′01″E / 49.82°N 78.1003°E | 659 m (2,162 ft) + | tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][3][5][6][7] | |||
| 536 - 1 | 18 October 1979 07:09:58.75 | MSK (3 hrs) |
NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-20 73°18′58″N 54°48′58″E / 73.316°N 54.816°E | 100 m (330 ft) – 500 m (1,600 ft) | tunnel, weapons development |
150 kt | Venting detected on site, 40 Ci (1,500 GBq) | [1][4][5][6][8] | ||
| 536 - 2 | 18 October 1979 07:09:58.8 | MSK (3 hrs) |
NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-20 73°18′58″N 54°48′58″E / 73.316°N 54.816°E | 100 m (330 ft) + | tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][3][5][6][9] | |||
| 536 - 3 | 18 October 1979 07:09:58.8 | MSK (3 hrs) |
NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-20 73°18′58″N 54°48′58″E / 73.316°N 54.816°E | 100 m (330 ft) + | tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][3][5][6][9] | |||
| 536 - 4 | 18 October 1979 07:09:58.8 | MSK (3 hrs) |
NZ Area B, Matochkin Shar, Novaya Zemlya, Russia: A-20 73°18′58″N 54°48′58″E / 73.316°N 54.816°E | 100 m (330 ft) + | tunnel, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][3][5][6][9] | |||
| 537 Galit A10 (Halite) - 1 | 24 October 1979 05:59:59.0 | SHET (5 hrs) |
Atyrau, Kazakhstan: A-X 47°51′09″N 48°08′36″E / 47.85243°N 48.14327°E | – 850 m (2,790 ft) | underground shaft, cavity excavation |
3 kt | [1][3][4][5][6] | Create reservoirs for gas storage. | ||
| 537 Galit A10 (Halite) - 2 | 24 October 1979 05:59:59.0 | SHET (5 hrs) |
Atyrau, Kazakhstan: A-X 47°51′09″N 48°08′36″E / 47.85243°N 48.14327°E | + | underground shaft, cavity excavation |
30 kt | [1][3][5][6][9] | |||
| 538 - 1 | 28 October 1979 03:16:59.55 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1224 49°59′51″N 78°59′40″E / 49.99759°N 78.9945°E | 330 m (1,080 ft) + | underground shaft, weapons development |
120 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 538 - 2 | 28 October 1979 03:16:59.6 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1224 49°59′51″N 78°59′40″E / 49.99759°N 78.9945°E | 330 m (1,080 ft) + | underground shaft, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][5][6][7][10] | |||
| 539 | 30 November 1979 04:53:00.58 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 192p 49°46′46″N 78°05′43″E / 49.7794°N 78.0953°E | 635 m (2,083 ft) + | tunnel, weapons development |
1.6 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 540 - 1 | 2 December 1979 04:37:00.06 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1309 49°54′37″N 78°47′04″E / 49.91024°N 78.78456°E | 330 m (1,080 ft) + | underground shaft, weapons development |
93 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 540 - 2 | 2 December 1979 04:37:00.1 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 1309 49°54′37″N 78°47′04″E / 49.91024°N 78.78456°E | 330 m (1,080 ft) + | underground shaft, fundamental science |
unknown yield | [1][5][6][7][10] | |||
| 541 | 21 December 1979 04:42:00.09 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Degelen, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: 802p 49°47′45″N 78°07′23″E / 49.7957°N 78.123°E | 727 m (2,385 ft) + | tunnel, weapons development |
3.6 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 542 - 1 | 23 December 1979 04:56:59.9 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: Glubokaya-1 49°56′00″N 78°45′04″E / 49.93336°N 78.75111°E | 330 m (1,080 ft) + | underground shaft, weapons development |
137 kt | [1][4][5][6][7] | |||
| 542 - 2 | 23 December 1979 04:56:59.9 | ALMT (6 hrs) |
Balapan, Semipalatinsk, Kazakhstan: Glubokaya-1 49°56′00″N 78°45′04″E / 49.93336°N 78.75111°E | 330 m (1,080 ft) + | underground shaft, weapons development |
unknown yield | [1][5][6][7][10] |
- ^ A bomb test may be a salvo test, defined as two or more explosions "where a period of time between successive individual explosions does not exceed 5 seconds and where the burial points of all explosive devices can be connected by segments of straight lines, each of them connecting two burial points and does not exceed 40 kilometers in length". Mikhailov, V. N. "Catalog of World Wide Nuclear Testing". Begell-Atom, LLC. Archived from the original on 2014-04-26. Retrieved 2013-12-18.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ The US, France and Great Britain have code-named their test events, while the USSR and China did not, and therefore have only test numbers (with some exceptions – Soviet peaceful explosions were named). Word translations into English in parentheses unless the name is a proper noun. A dash followed by a number indicates a member of a salvo event. The US also sometimes named the individual explosions in such a salvo test, which results in "name1 – 1(with name2)". If test is canceled or aborted, then the row data like date and location discloses the intended plans, where known.
- ^ To convert the UT time into standard local, add the number of hours in parentheses to the UT time; for local daylight saving time, add one additional hour. If the result is earlier than 00:00, add 24 hours and subtract 1 from the day; if it is 24:00 or later, subtract 24 hours and add 1 to the day. Historical time zone data obtained from the IANA time zone database.
- ^ Rough place name and a latitude/longitude reference; for rocket-carried tests, the launch location is specified before the detonation location, if known. Some locations are extremely accurate; others (like airdrops and space blasts) may be quite inaccurate. "~" indicates a likely pro-forma rough location, shared with other tests in that same area.
- ^ Elevation is the ground level at the point directly below the explosion relative to sea level; height is the additional distance added or subtracted by tower, balloon, shaft, tunnel, air drop or other contrivance. For rocket bursts the ground level is "N/A". In some cases it is not clear if the height is absolute or relative to ground, for example, Plumbbob/John. No number or units indicates the value is unknown, while "0" means zero. Sorting on this column is by elevation and height added together.
- ^ Atmospheric, airdrop, balloon, gun, cruise missile, rocket, surface, tower, and barge are all disallowed by the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty. Sealed shaft and tunnel are underground, and remained useful under the PTBT. Intentional cratering tests are borderline; they occurred under the treaty, were sometimes protested, and generally overlooked if the test was declared to be a peaceful use.
- ^ Include weapons development, weapon effects, safety test, transport safety test, war, science, joint verification and industrial/peaceful, which may be further broken down.
- ^ Designations for test items where known, "?" indicates some uncertainty about the preceding value, nicknames for particular devices in quotes. This category of information is often not officially disclosed.
- ^ Estimated energy yield in tons, kilotons, and megatons. A ton of TNT equivalent is defined as 4.184 gigajoules (1 gigacalorie).
- ^ Radioactive emission to the atmosphere aside from prompt neutrons, where known. The measured species is only iodine-131 if mentioned, otherwise it is all species. No entry means unknown, probably none if underground and "all" if not; otherwise notation for whether measured on the site only or off the site, where known, and the measured amount of radioactivity released.
References
[edit]- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba Yang, Xiaoping; North, Robert; Romney, Carl (August 2000). CMR Nuclear Explosion Database (Revision 3) (Technical report). SMDC Monitoring Research.
- ^ "Time Zone Historical Database". iana.com. Archived from the original on 2014-03-11. Retrieved March 8, 2014.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Nuclear explosions in the USSR: The North Test Site reference material, version 4 (PDF) (Technical report). IAEA Dept. of Nuclear Safety and Security. December 1, 2004. Retrieved December 13, 2013.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Cochran, Thomas B.; Arkin, William M.; Norris, Robert S.; Sands, Jeffrey I. Nuclear Weapons Databook Vol. IV: Soviet Nuclear Weapons. New York, NY: Harper and Row.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az Podvig, Pavel, ed. (2001). Russian Strategic Nuclear Forces. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. ISBN 9780262661812. Retrieved January 9, 2014.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az USSR Nuclear Weapons Tests and Peaceful Nuclear Explosions 1949 through 1990. Sarov, Russia: RFNC-VNIIEF. 1996. The official Russian list of Soviet tests.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af Khalturin, Vitaly I.; Rautian, Tatyana G.; Richards, Paul G. (2000). "Chemical explosions during 1961-1989 on the Semipalatinsk Test Site, Kazakhstan" (PDF). Pure and Applied Geophysics. 158: 143–171. doi:10.1007/pl00001153. S2CID 128953780. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 4, 2016. Retrieved December 13, 2013.
- ^ a b c d Kim, Won-Young; Richards, Paul G.; Andrushkin, Vitaly; Ovtchinnikov, Vladimir (April 1, 2001). Borovoye digital seismogram archive for underground nuclear tests during 1966-1996 (PDF) (Technical report). LDEO. Retrieved December 13, 2013.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Andrushkin, Vitaly V.; Leith, William (September 1, 2001). The containment of Soviet underground nuclear explosions (PDF) (Open File Report 01-312). USGS. Archived from the original (PDF) on May 9, 2013. Retrieved December 13, 2013.
- ^ a b c d e f Thurber, Clifford; Trabant, Chad; Haslinger, Florian; Hartog, Renate (2001). Nuclear explosion locations at the Balapan, Kazakhstan, nuclear test site: the effects of high-precision arrival times and three-dimensional structure. Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors (Technical report). Vol. 123. pp. 283–301. doi:10.1016/s0031-9201(00)00215-6. Retrieved December 13, 2013.
- ^ Kazanskyi, Denys (16 April 2018). "Disaster in the making". The Ukrainian Week.