Jump to content

Zine El Abidine Ben Ali

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali)

Zine El Abidine Ben Ali
زين العابدين بن علي
Ben Ali in 2008
2nd President of Tunisia
In office
7 November 1987 – 14 January 2011
Prime MinisterHédi Baccouche
Hamed Karoui
Mohamed Ghannouchi
Preceded byHabib Bourguiba
Succeeded byMohamed Ghannouchi (interim)
Prime Minister of Tunisia
In office
2 October 1987 – 7 November 1987
PresidentHabib Bourguiba
Preceded byRachid Sfar
Succeeded byHédi Baccouche
Personal details
Born(1936-09-03)3 September 1936
Hammam Sousse, French Tunisia
Died19 September 2019(2019-09-19) (aged 83)
Jeddah, Saudi Arabia
Resting placeAl-Baqi Cemetery, Medina, Saudi Arabia
Political partySocialist Destourian Party (1986–1988)
Constitutional Democratic Rally (1988–2011)
Spouses
​
​
(m. 1964; div. 1988)​
​
(m. 1992)​
Children
  • Ghazwa
  • Dorsaf
  • Cyrine
  • Nesrine
  • Halima
  • Mohamed Zine El Abidine
Alma materSpecial Military School of Saint Cyr
School of Applied Artillery
Senior Intelligence School in Maryland
School for Anti-Aircraft Field Artillery in Texas
Full nameZine El Abidine Ben Haj Hamda Ben Haj Hassen Ben Ali[1]
Military career
Allegiance Tunisia
Service / branch Tunisian Army
Years of service1958–1980
RankBrigadier general

Zine El Abidine Ben Ali (Arabic: زين العابدين بن علي, romanized: Zayn al-ʿĀbidīn bin ʿAlī, Tunisian Arabic: Zīn il-ʿĀbdīn bin ʿAlī; 3 September 1936 – 19 September 2019), commonly known as Ben Ali or Ezzine, was a Tunisian politician who served as the second president of Tunisia from 1987 to 2011. In that year, during the Tunisian revolution, he was overthrown and fled to Saudi Arabia.

Ben Ali was appointed Prime Minister in October 1987. He assumed the Presidency on 7 November 1987 in a bloodless coup d'état that ousted President Habib Bourguiba by declaring him incompetent.[2] Ben Ali led an authoritarian regime.[3] He was reelected in several non-democratic elections where he won with enormous majorities, each time exceeding 90% of the vote, his final re-election coming on 25 October 2009.[4][3] Ben Ali was the penultimate surviving leader deposed in the Arab Spring; he was survived by Egypt's Hosni Mubarak, the latter dying in February 2020.

On 14 January 2011, following a month of protests against his rule, he fled to Saudi Arabia along with his wife Leïla Ben Ali and their three children. The interim Tunisian government asked Interpol to issue an international arrest warrant, charging him with money laundering and drug trafficking. A Tunisian court sentenced Ben Ali and his wife in absentia to 35 years in prison on 20 June 2011 on charges of theft and unlawful possession of cash and jewelry, which was put up for auction.[5][6] In June 2012, a Tunisian court sentenced him in absentia to life imprisonment for inciting violence and murder and another life sentence by a military court in April 2013 for violent repression of protests in Sfax.[7] He served none of those sentences, subsequently dying in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, on 19 September 2019 at the age of 83 after nearly a decade in exile.

Early life, education and military career

[edit]
Hammam Sousse, birthplace of Ben Ali
A young Ben Ali, as a military officer, in Tunis, 1961

Ben Ali was born in 1936 to moderate-income parents[8] as the fourth of eleven children in the family.[9] His father[1] worked as a guard at the port city of Sousse.[10]

Ben Ali joined the local resistance against French colonial forces and was imprisoned.[11] His expulsion from secondary school was the reason why he never completed his secondary education.[11] He studied at the Sousse Technical Institute but failed to earn a professional certificate[12] and joined the newly formed Tunisian Army in 1958.[13] Nevertheless, after being chosen as one among a group of young officers,[10] he was awarded training in France at the École Spéciale Militaire de Saint-Cyr in Coëtquidan and the School of Applied Artillery in Châlons-sur-Marne, and also in the United States at the Senior Intelligence School in Maryland and the School for Anti-Aircraft Field Artillery in Texas. He also held a diploma in electronics engineering from a local university.[14] Returning to Tunisia in 1964, he began his professional military career the same year as a Tunisian staff officer.[13] During his time in military service, he established the Military Security Department and directed its operations for 10 years. He briefly served as military attaché in the Tunisian embassy of Morocco and Spain before being appointed General Director of National Security in 1977.[15][16]

In April 1980,[14] Ben Ali was appointed ambassador to Poland, and served in that position for four years.[17] He also served as the military intelligence chief from 1964 to 1974 and later Director General of national security between December 1977 and 1980 until he was appointed as Minister of Defense.[18][19] Soon after the Tunisian bread riots in January 1984, he was reappointed director-general of national security.[20] Ben Ali subsequently served as Minister of State in charge of the interior before being appointed Interior Minister on 28 April 1986 then Prime Minister by President Habib Bourguiba in October 1987.[17]

Rise to presidency

[edit]
Main article: 1987 Tunisian coup d'état
Portrait of Ben Ali at the presidential palace of Carthage.

On the morning of 7 November 1987, doctors attending to President Bourguiba filed an official medical report declaring him medically incapacitated and unable to fulfill the duties of the presidency. Ben Ali, next in line to the presidency, removed Bourguiba from office and assumed the presidency himself.[21][22] The day of his accession to power was celebrated annually in Tunisia as New Era Day.[23] Two of the names given to Ben Ali's rise to the presidency include "the medical coup d'état" and the "Tunisian revolution".[24][25] Ben Ali favoured the latter.[24] Ben Ali’s assumption of the presidency was in conformity with Article 57 of the Tunisian Constitution. The country had faced 10% inflation, external debt accounting for 46% of GDP and a debt service ratio of 21% of GDP.[26]

In 1999, Fulvio Martini, former head of Italian military secret service SISMI, declared to a parliamentary committee that "from 1985 to 1987, we organized a coup of sorts in Tunisia, putting president Ben Ali as head of state, replacing Bourguiba who wanted to flee". Bourguiba, although a symbol of anti-colonial resistance, was considered incapable of leading his country any longer, and his reaction to the rising Islamic integrism was deemed "a bit too energetic" by Martini; Bourguiba's threat to execute the suspects might have generated strong negative responses in neighbouring countries. Acting under directives from Italian Prime Minister Bettino Craxi and Foreign Minister Giulio Andreotti, Martini claims to have brokered the accord that led to the peaceful transition of powers.[27]

According to Martini, the SISMI did not have an operational role in Ben Ali's rise to power, but organised a move to support his new government politically and economically, preventing Tunisia from falling into an open confrontation with fundamentalists, as happened in Algeria in the following years.[28]

Presidency (1987–2011)

[edit]

Politics

[edit]
Ben Ali with Iraqi Deputy Prime Minister Taha Yassin Ramadan in 1988

Alan Cowell, a prominent New York Times journalist, believed Ben Ali's initial promises of a more democratic way of ruling the country than had prevailed under Bourguiba.[29] One of his first acts upon taking office was to loosen restrictions on the press; for the first time state-controlled newspapers published statements from the opposition.[22] Ben Ali also released some political prisoners and granted them with pardons. [30] In 1988, he changed the name of the ruling Destourian Socialist Party to the Democratic Constitutional Rally (RCD), and pushed through constitutional amendments that limited the president to three five-year terms, with no more than two in a row.

Zine El Abidine Ben Ali and Carlos Menem in 1997

However, the conduct of the 1989 elections was little different from past elections. The RCD swept every seat in the legislature, and Ben Ali appeared alone on the ballot in Tunisia's first presidential election since 1974. Although opposition parties had been legal since 1981, presidential candidates were required to get endorsements from 30 political figures. Given the RCD's near-absolute dominance of the political scene, prospective opposition candidates discovered they could not get their nomination papers signed. The subsequent years saw the return of several Bourguiba-era restrictions. For many years, the press had been expected to practice self-censorship, but this increasingly gave way to official censorship. Amendments to the press code allowed the Interior Ministry to review all newspaper and magazine articles before publication.[31] In 1992, the president's younger brother Habib Ben Ali was tried in absentia in France for laundering the proceeds of drug trafficking, in a case known as the "couscous connection". French television news was blocked in Tunisia during the trial.[32][33]

William Cohen is welcomed by Ben Ali at the Presidential Palace in Tunis, in 2000

At the 1994 elections, opposition parties polled 2.25% and gained 19 of 163 seats in Parliament—the first time opposition parties had actually managed to get into the chamber. Ben Ali was unopposed for a second full term, again after being the only candidate to get enough endorsements to qualify. Turnout was officially reported at 95%.[34] However, at this and subsequent elections, opposition parties never accounted for more than 24 percent of the seats in the Chamber of Deputies. All legislation continued to originate with the president, and there was little meaningful opposition to executive decisions.

In 1999, Ben Ali became the first Tunisian president to actually face an opponent after the 30-signature requirement was lifted a few months earlier.[31] However, he won a third full term with an implausible 99.4 percent of the vote.

A constitutional referendum in 2002—the first ever held in Tunisia—established a two-chambered parliament, creating the Chamber of Advisers. It also allowed the president to run for an unlimited number of five-year terms and amended the upper age limit for a presidential candidate to 75 years old (previously 70). The latter measures were clearly aimed at keeping Ben Ali in office; he faced having to give up the presidency in 2004.[35][36] He was duly reelected in 2004, again by an implausibly high margin—this time 94 percent of the vote.

Zine El Abidine Ben Ali in 2002

Tunisia under Ben Ali had problems with human rights violations, such as freedom of the press, highlighted by the official treatment of the journalist Taoufik Ben Brik, who was harassed and imprisoned for his criticism of Ben Ali.[37] By the dawn of the new millennium, Ben Ali was reckoned as leading one of the most repressive regimes in the world. Under his rule, Tunisia consistently ranked near the bottom of most international rankings for human rights and press freedom.

On 25 October 2009, Ben Ali was re-elected for a fifth term with 89% of the vote.[38] The African Union sent a team of observers to cover the election. The delegation was led by Benjamin Bounkoulou, who described the election as "free and fair".[39] However, a spokesperson from the US State Department indicated that Tunisia had not permitted monitoring of the election by international observers, but that the U.S. was still committed to working with the Ben Ali and the Tunisian government.[40] There also were reports of mistreatment of an opposition candidate.[41]

In December 2010 and January 2011, riots over unemployment escalated into a widespread popular protest movement against Ben Ali's government. On 13 January 2011, he announced he would not run for another term in 2014, and pledged steps to improve the economy and loosen restrictions on the press. The following day, however, thousands demonstrated in the center of Tunis, demanding Ben Ali's immediate resignation. On 14 January 2011, Ben Ali, his wife and children[42] fled to Saudi Arabia, and a caretaker ruling committee headed by Prime Minister Mohamed Ghannouchi was announced.

Economy

[edit]
Colin Powell meeting with Ben Ali on 17 February 2004

As president, Ben Ali instituted economic reforms that increased Tunisia's growth rate and foreign investment. During his administration, Tunisia's per capita GDP more than tripled from $1,201 in 1986 to $3,786 in 2008.[43] Although growth in 2002 slowed to a 15-year low of 1.9% due to drought and lackluster tourism (partly due to some tourists being nervous about flying in the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks in New York), better conditions after 2003 helped push growth to about 5% of GDP. For about 20 years after 1987, the GDP annual growth averaged nearly 5%. A report published in July 2010 by the Boston Consulting Group (The African Challengers: Global Competitors Emerge from the Overlooked Continent) listed Tunisia as one of the African "Lions" and indicated the eight such countries account for 70% of the continent's gross domestic product.[44]

Steady increases in GDP growth continued through positive trade relations with the European Union, a revitalised tourism industry and sustained agricultural production. Privatization, increasing foreign investment, improvements in government efficiency and reduction of the trade deficit presented challenges for the future.[45][46] The 2010/11 Global Competitiveness Report (Davos World Economic Forum) ranked Tunisia 1st in Africa and 32nd globally out of 139 countries[47] but it dropped to 40th in 2011/12 as a result of political instability[48] and was not ranked in 2012/13.[49]

George W. Bush meets with Ben Ali in the Oval Office on 18 Feb 2004

According to the Oxford Business Group, Tunisia's economy was likely to grow from 2008 thanks to its diversified industries.[50][51]

Committed to fighting poverty at home, Ben Ali instituted reforms, including the National Solidarity Fund, which slashed the Tunisian poverty rate from 7.4% in 1990 to an estimated 3.8% in 2005.[52] The National Solidarity Fund was part of a dual strategy to fight current and potential terrorism through economic assistance, development and the rule of law, but also increased opportunities for corruption and clientelism.[53] The fund provided opportunities to those living in impoverished areas and are vulnerable to recruitment by terrorists. It was a critical element in the fight against terrorism.[54]

However, Tunisia continued to suffer from high unemployment, especially among youth. Left out of the recent prosperity were many rural and urban poor, including small businesses facing the world market. This and the blocking of free speech were the causes of the Tunisian revolution.[citation needed]

Diplomacy

[edit]
Donald H. Rumsfeld and Peter Rodman meet with Ben Ali in Tunis, in February 2006

During Ben Ali's presidency, Tunisia pursued a moderate foreign policy promoting peaceful settlement of conflicts. Tunisia took a middle of the road approach contributing to peacemaking, especially in the Middle East and Africa. Tunisia hosted the first-ever Palestinian American dialogue. While contributing actively to the Middle East peace process, Tunisian diplomacy has supported the Palestinian cause. As host to the Palestine Liberation Organization in 1982–1993, Ben Ali's government tried to moderate the views of that organisation.[55] Tunisia, since the early 1990s, called for a "concerted" international effort against terrorism. It was also a key US partner in the effort to fight global terrorism through the Trans-Saharan Counterterrorism Initiative.[56] Ben Ali mostly retained his predecessor's pro-western foreign policy, though he improved ties with the Arab and Muslim world. He took several initiatives to promote solidarity, dialogue and cooperation among nations. Ben Ali initiated the creation of the United Nations World Solidarity Fund to eradicate poverty and promote social development based on the successful experience of the Tunisian National Solidarity Fund.[57][58] Ben Ali also played a lead role in the UN's proclaiming 2010 as the International Year of Youth.[59]

International characterisations

[edit]
Ben Ali's portrait thrown into trash

Ben Ali's government was considered to have one of the worst human rights records in the world. It largely bucked the trend toward greater democracy in Africa. The level of repression became particularly severe during what would be the last decade of his rule. Ben Ali's government was deemed dictatorial, authoritarian and undemocratic by international human rights groups such as Amnesty International, Freedom House, and Protection International. They criticised Tunisian officials for not observing international standards of political rights[60][61][62] and interfering with the work of local human rights organisations.[63] In The Economist's 2010 Democracy Index, Tunisia was classified as an authoritarian regime, ranking 144th out of 167 countries studied. In 2008, in terms of freedom of the press, Tunisia was ranked 143 out of 173.[64][65]

Revolution and overthrow

[edit]
Main article: Tunisian Revolution
Graffiti against Ben Ali

In response to the protests, Ben Ali declared a state of emergency, dissolved the government on 14 January 2011, and promised new legislative elections within six months. However, events moved quickly, and it appears the armed forces and key members of the legislature had lost confidence in Ben Ali and had decided to take steps of their own. With power slipping from Ben Ali's grasp, prime minister Mohamed Ghannouchi announced that he would act as head of state during the president's "temporary" absence. With the army surrounding the Presidential Palace in Tunis, Ben Ali and close members of his family hastily left and headed to Laouina airport (annexed to the Tunis–Carthage International Airport). The military allowed Ben Ali's plane to take off, immediately after which the Tunisian airspace was closed. The presidential plane then left for Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Subsequent reports in the media rumoured that Ben Ali was seeking protection in either France or Malta, although a Tunisian pilot who was involved in the arrangement of the flight stated that the plan was "to fly directly to Jeddah", which is also supported by recordings released by the BBC in 2022.[66][67] Ben Ali and his family were accepted by King Abdullah to live in Saudi Arabia under the condition that he should keep out of politics. Ben Ali and his family went to exile in Jeddah, the same city where Idi Amin, the late dictator of Uganda, lived in exile until his death in 2003 after being removed from power in 1979 at the end of the Uganda–Tanzania War.[68]

Other close associates and family members who attempted to leave the country via Tunis-Carthage were prevented from doing so by the army, which had seized the airport.[69][70]

Succession confusion

[edit]
A banner demanding the resignation of Ben Ali in French

At about 18:00, Prime Minister Mohamed Ghannouchi went on state television to say "Since the president is temporarily unable to exercise his duties, it has been decided that the prime minister will temporarily exercise the (presidential) duties."[71]

However, this arrangement was very short-lived, because early the following day (15 January 2011), the Constitutional Council of Tunisia determined that Ben Ali was not "temporarily unable" to exercise his duties and that the presidency was in fact vacant. The arrangements he had made with the Prime Minister before leaving the country were found to be unconstitutional under article 57 of the constitution. The country's constitutional council, at the time the highest legal authority on constitutional matters, announced the transition saying that Fouad Mebazaa, the Speaker of Parliament, had been appointed acting president.[71]

Mebazaa took the oath in his office in parliament, swearing to respect the constitution in the presence of his senate counterpart, Abdallal Kallel, and representatives of both houses. It was also announced that the speaker of parliament would occupy the post of president temporarily and that elections would be held within a period of between 45 and 60 days.[71]

Flight and trial in absentia

[edit]

On 26 January 2011, the Tunisian government issued an international arrest warrant for Ben Ali, accusing him of taking money out of the nation illegally and illegally acquiring real estate and other assets abroad, Justice Minister Lazhar Karoui Chebbi said.[72] Videos show that the president stashed cash and jewellery in the president's palace. The gold and jewellery will be redistributed to the people by the government.[73] The Swiss government announced that it was freezing millions of dollars held in bank accounts by his family.[74] On 28 January 2011, Interpol issued an arrest warrant for Ben Ali and his six family members, including his wife Leïla.[75]

After Ben Ali fled Tunisia following the Tunisian revolution, he and his wife were tried in absentia for his suspected involvement in some of the country's largest businesses during his 23-year-long reign.[6] On 20 June 2011, Ben Ali and his wife were sentenced to 35 years in prison after being found guilty of theft and unlawful possession of cash and jewelry.[5][6] The verdict also included a penalty of 91 million Tunisian dinars (approximately €50 million, and $64 million) that Ben Ali was required to pay.[5] This verdict was dismissed as a "charade" by some Tunisians dissatisfied with the trial and as a "joke" by Ben Ali's lawyer.[76] The sentences were to take immediate effect, although Ben Ali and his wife were living in Saudi Arabia and the Saudi government ignored Tunisia's requests to extradite them.[76]

In November 2016, Ben Ali made a statement via the office of his lawyer, Mounir Ben Salha, acknowledging his regime made "errors, abuses and violations".[77] His statement came as a reaction to the public hearing sessions made by the Truth and Dignity Commission in Tunisia.[citation needed]

Family

[edit]
Leïla Ben Ali

Ben Ali and his family were accused of corruption,[78] which was a major contribution to the Tunisian Revolution which led to the fall of his government. Many of Ben Ali's family members subsequently also fled the country. On 20 January 2011, Tunisian television reported that 33 members of Ben Ali's family had been arrested in the past week, as they tried to flee the country.[79]

Leïla Ben Ali was the chair of the BASMA Association, a group that promotes social integration and provides employment opportunities for the disabled.[80] She was also the president of the Arab Women Organization, which works to empower women in Arab states.[81] She has three children: Nesrine, Halima and Mohamed Zine El Abidine. Ben Ali has three daughters from his first marriage: Ghazwa, Dorsaf and Cyrine.

Health condition and death

[edit]

On 17 February 2011, it was reported that Ben Ali had suffered a stroke, and had been hospitalised for an indefinite period.[82] Al Jazeera reported that a Saudi source had confirmed that Ben Ali had indeed sustained severe complications of a stroke and that he was in critical condition.[83] The information has never been confirmed or denied by the Saudi government. However, on 17 June 2011, Ben Ali's attorney, Jean-Yves Leborgne, stated that Ben Ali "is not in the state that he's said to be in" and that "a meeting with his client took place under 'normal circumstances'".[84]

Ben Ali died at a hospital in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, due to prostate cancer on 19 September 2019 at the age of 83.[85][86][87][88][excessive citations] He was buried on 21 September at the Al-Baqi Cemetery in Medina.[89]

See also

[edit]

Decorations

[edit]

Tunisian national honours

[edit]

Foreign honours

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b "Étrangers politiquement vulnérables (Tunisie)" (in French). Department of Justice of Canada. 16 December 2011. Archived from the original on 24 December 2017. Retrieved 24 December 2017.
  2. ^ "A Coup is reported in Tunisia". The New York Times. Associated Press. 7 November 1987. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 13 June 2018. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
  3. ^ a b Wolf, Anne (2023). Ben Ali's Tunisia: Power and Contention in an Authoritarian Regime. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-286850-3.
  4. ^ Yannick Vely (23 November 2009). "Ben Ali, sans discussion". Paris-Match (in French). Archived from the original on 29 October 2009. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
  5. ^ a b c "Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, Former Tunisian President, Sentenced To 35 Years in Jail For Theft, Unlawful Cash And Jewelry Possession". Huffington Post. 20 June 2011. Archived from the original on 20 October 2017. Retrieved 18 February 2020.
  6. ^ a b c Jo Adetunji (20 June 2011). "Ben Ali sentenced to 35 years in jail". The Guardian. London. Archived from the original on 7 April 2017. Retrieved 18 December 2016.
  7. ^ "Tunisia's Ben Ali sentenced for incitement to murder". 13 June 2012. Archived from the original on 17 June 2019. Retrieved 20 June 2018.
  8. ^ "Zine El Abidine Ben Ali". GlobalSecurity.org. Archived from the original on 24 December 2017. Retrieved 24 December 2017.
  9. ^ Farhat, Mehdi (7 July 2011). "Ben Ali, le dictateur "bac moins 3"" (in French). SlateAfrique. Archived from the original on 24 December 2017. Retrieved 24 December 2017.
  10. ^ a b "محطات في حياة زين العابدين بن علي" (in Arabic). Islam Message. 15 January 2011. Archived from the original on 24 December 2017. Retrieved 24 December 2017.
  11. ^ a b "جريدة الدستور : في عيد مولده.. هل فهم زين العابدين بن علي الشعب التونسي حقًا؟ (طباعة" (in Arabic). Al-Dustour. 3 September 2016. Archived from the original on 24 December 2017. Retrieved 24 December 2017.
  12. ^ "زين العابدين بن علي" (in Arabic). AlJazeera Arabic. Archived from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 19 November 2020.
  13. ^ a b "زين العابدين بن علي... الرئيس الذي حكم تونس 23 عاما وأسقطه بائع خضار" (in Arabic). France24. 18 January 2011. Archived from the original on 24 December 2017. Retrieved 24 December 2017.
  14. ^ a b "Zine El Abidine Ben Ali" (in French). abdijan.net. Archived from the original on 24 December 2017. Retrieved 24 December 2017.
  15. ^ Yahya Abu Zekrih. "عهد الجنرال زين العابدين بن علي" (in Arabic). Arab Times. Archived from the original on 16 April 2018. Retrieved 24 December 2017.
  16. ^ Ben Ali's biography: Zine El Abidine Bin Ali, President of the Tunisian Republic at Changement.tn, 2009 Archived 21 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  17. ^ a b Zine el-Abidine Ben Ali Biography Archived 5 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine Biography.com
  18. ^ "زين العابدين بن علي في سطور" (in Arabic). Ali Tihad. 15 January 2011. Archived from the original on 24 December 2017. Retrieved 24 December 2017.
  19. ^ "نبذة عن : زين العابدين بن علي" (in Arabic). BBC News Arabic. 20 June 2011. Archived from the original on 9 January 2018. Retrieved 24 December 2017.
  20. ^ Gana, Nouri (2013). The Making of the Tunisian Revolution: Contexts, Architects, Prospects. Oxford University Press. p. 66. ISBN 978-0-7486-9103-6. Retrieved 13 May 2015.
  21. ^ Tunisian Constitution Archived 7 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine United Nations, 2009.
  22. ^ a b Bourguiba Described in Tunis Archived 1 July 2017 at the Wayback Machine The New York Times, 9 November 1987
  23. ^ "Tunisia New Era Day". Encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com. 7 November 1987. Archived from the original on 6 June 2013. Retrieved 31 January 2013.
  24. ^ a b Michael, Ayari; Vincent Geisser (2011). "Tunisie: la Révolution des "Nouzouh"* n'a pas l'odeur du jasmin" (in French). Témoignage chrétien. Archived from the original on 28 January 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
  25. ^ "La révolution par le feu et par un clic" (in French). Le Quotidien d'Oran/moofid.com. 25 February 2011. Archived from the original on 14 July 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2011.
  26. ^ "Republic of Tunisia Country Assistance Evaluation" (PDF). World Bank. September 2004. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 December 2011. Retrieved 31 January 2013.
  27. ^ "L'Italia dietro il golpe in Tunisia". la Repubblica. Archived from the original on 20 January 2011. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
  28. ^ "Tunisia, il golpe italiano 'Si', scegliemmo Ben Ali". la Repubblica. Archived from the original on 27 March 2019. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
  29. ^ "An Opening In Tunisia, A More Open North Africa?". New York Times. 5 March 1989.
  30. ^ Cowell, Alan (5 March 1989). "THE WORLD; An Opening In Tunisia, A More Open North Africa?". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Archived from the original on 27 April 2023. Retrieved 27 April 2023.
  31. ^ a b Dickovick, J. Tyler (2008). The World Today Series: Africa 2012. Lanham, Maryland: Stryker-Post Publications. ISBN 978-161048-881-5.
  32. ^ "Couscous connection. (Tunisian President Zinc el-Abidine Ben Ali's brother on trial in France)". The Economist. 28 November 1992. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 14 May 2015.
  33. ^ Mekki, Thameur (1 August 2018). "En Tunisie, une loi contre le cannabis et la jeunesse". Le Monde diplomatique. Archived from the original on 10 June 2021. Retrieved 1 November 2020.
  34. ^ "Arab Parliaments: Tunisia". United Nations Development Department. 2010. Archived from the original on 11 August 2010. Retrieved 14 October 2010.
  35. ^ "Tunisia Votes on Reforms" (PDF). DPEPA/UNDESA. May 2002. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 December 2011. Retrieved 14 October 2010.
  36. ^ "Win confirms Tunisia leader in power" Archived 31 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine, BBC News, 27 May 2002
  37. ^ "Two International Organizations Protest Ongoing Harassment of Tunisian Journalist | Human Rights Watch". Human Rights Watch. 4 April 2000. Archived from the original on 18 February 2011. Retrieved 14 January 2011.
  38. ^ "Tunisian Constitution" (PDF). United Nations, Tunisian Government. 2009. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 April 2019. Retrieved 14 October 2010.
  39. ^ "Tunisian president in fifth win" Archived 16 September 2023 at the Wayback Machine, BBC News, 26 October 2009
  40. ^ World datelines Archived 3 November 2009 at the Wayback Machine, Deseret News, 27 October 2009
  41. ^ Opposition leader who gave TV interview in Paris is beaten by police on his return Archived 19 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine Menassat, 1 October 2009
  42. ^ "EA WorldView – Home – Tunisia LiveBlog: Will Ben Ali's "Last Card" Be Trumped?". www.enduringamerica.com. Archived from the original on 27 June 2019. Retrieved 19 September 2019.
  43. ^ UNdata Record View Per Capita GDP at Current Prices Archived 26 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine United Nations, 10 August 2010
  44. ^ The African Challengers: Global Competitors Emerge from the Overlooked Continent Archived 16 June 2019 at the Wayback Machine The Boston Consulting Group, June 2010
  45. ^ Ben Ali's biography: Zine El Abidine Ben Ali, President of the Tunisian Republic at Changement.tn, 2009 Archived 21 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine
  46. ^ Country Coverage Tunisia Archived 8 November 2010 at the Wayback Machine Oxford Business Group, 2010
  47. ^ "Global Competitiveness Report" (PDF). www3.weforum.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 6 December 2010. Retrieved 7 July 2021.
  48. ^ "GCR Report" (PDF). www3.weforum.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 July 2014. Retrieved 7 July 2021.
  49. ^ "Global Competitiveness Index, World Economic Forum" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 March 2019. Retrieved 31 January 2013.
  50. ^ Tunisia: Data Archived 21 October 2010 at the Wayback Machine The World Bank, 2008
  51. ^ Field Listing: Population Below Poverty Line CIA, The World Fact Book, 2005
  52. ^ National Solidarity Fund 2009 Archived 25 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine
  53. ^ Tsourapas, Gerasimos (2013). "The Other Side of a Neoliberal Miracle: Economic Reform and Political De-Liberalization in Ben Ali's Tunisia". Mediterranean Politics. 18 (1): 23–41. doi:10.1080/13629395.2012.761475. S2CID 154822868.
  54. ^ Terrorism in Tunisia Institute for Security Studies, 1 June 2008 Archived 20 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  55. ^ "The Tunisian Model" Archived 25 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine by Jerry Sorkin, Middle East Quarterly (Fall 2001)
  56. ^ The Report: Tunisia 2007: Country Profile Archived 3 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine Oxford Business Group, 2007
  57. ^ Tunisia's President Ben Ali Seeks Solidarity in Fight to End Poverty Archived 26 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine Delinda C. Hanley, Washington Report on Middle East Affairs, April 2005
  58. ^ ECOSOC Endorses Decision to Establish World Solidarity Fund to Eradicate Poverty and Promote Social Development Archived 25 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine United Nations, 2003
  59. ^ Address by Mr. Samir Labidi Archived 3 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine United Nations, 2008
  60. ^ "Tunisia | Amnesty International". Amnesty.org. Archived from the original on 9 May 2010. Retrieved 31 January 2013.
  61. ^ Freedom in the World (report)
  62. ^ [1] Archived 29 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine
  63. ^ "Tunisie – Droits de l'Homme : après le harcèlement, l'asphyxie". Rfi.fr. 16 December 2004. Archived from the original on 5 May 2013. Retrieved 31 January 2013.
  64. ^ "Dans le monde de l'après-11 septembre, seule la paix protège les libertés – Reporters sans frontières". Rsf.org. Archived from the original on 8 April 2010. Retrieved 31 January 2013.
  65. ^ [2] Archived 2 October 2006 at the Wayback Machine
  66. ^ "Flight of the dictator: The pilot who flew Tunisia's Ben Ali into exile". Middle East Eye. 2 February 2017. Archived from the original on 6 July 2020. Retrieved 6 March 2023.
  67. ^ Nader, Emir. "Secret audio sheds light on toppled dictator's frantic last hours". BBC News Arabic. Archived from the original on 14 January 2022. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
  68. ^ Edwards, Alex (July–August 2012). "Understanding Dictators" (PDF). The Majalla. 1574: 32–37. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 July 2013. Retrieved 4 April 2013.
  69. ^ "Tunisia: President Zine al-Abidine Ben Ali forced out". BBC. 14 January 2011. Archived from the original on 15 January 2011. Retrieved 15 January 2011.
  70. ^ Ganley, Elaine; Charlton, Angela; Keaten, Jamey; Al-Shalchi, Hadeel (14 January 2011). "Tunisian leader flees amid protests, PM takes over". The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. Associated Press. ISSN 1539-7459. Retrieved 14 January 2011.[dead link]
  71. ^ a b c "Tunisia Swears in Interim Leader". Al Jazeera. 16 January 2011. Archived from the original on 28 January 2011. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
  72. ^ "Tunisia issues intl warrant for ousted president". Apnews.myway.com. Archived from the original on 21 June 2013. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
  73. ^ "Ousted Tunisian president 'stashed' cash". Euro News. 20 February 2011. Archived from the original on 6 May 2021. Retrieved 10 April 2011.
  74. ^ Kirkpatrick, David D. (26 January 2011). "As Protests Mount, Tunisia Delays Cabinet Reshuffle". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 18 November 2018. Retrieved 19 September 2019.
  75. ^ "Interpol pursues toppled president". The Sydney Morning Herald. Agence France-Presse. 28 January 2011. Archived from the original on 25 November 2020. Retrieved 20 February 2020.
  76. ^ a b "Tunisians dissatisfied with quick Ben Ali verdict". Agence France-Presse. Archived from the original on 24 January 2013.
  77. ^ "Ben Ali: My regime 'committed errors, abuses and violations'". Archived from the original on 19 November 2016.
  78. ^ Kirkpatrick, David D. (13 January 2011). "Tunisia Leader Shaken as Riots Hit Hamlet of Hammamet". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 16 November 2016. Retrieved 28 February 2017.
  79. ^ "Ousted Tunisian leader Ben Ali's family arrested". BBC News. 20 January 2011. Archived from the original on 20 January 2019. Retrieved 20 June 2018.
  80. ^ "BASMA Association for the Promotion of Employment of Disabled Persons". BASMA Association. 2010. Retrieved 14 October 2010.[dead link]
  81. ^ "First Lady Leila Ben Ali: Activities of the AWO Presidency". Arab Women Organization. 2009. Archived from the original on 21 October 2010. Retrieved 14 October 2010.
  82. ^ "Ben Ali in a coma". Le Monde (in French). 17 February 2011. Archived from the original on 19 February 2011. Retrieved 17 February 2011.
  83. ^ Aljazeera Satellite Channel, Newshour, 17 February 2011
  84. ^ "Forbes.com". Forbes.[dead link]
  85. ^ Hubbard, Ben; Gladstone, Rick (19 September 2019). "Tunisia's Ben Ali, Autocrat Who Inspired Arab Spring Revolts, Dies in Exile". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 23 September 2019. Retrieved 19 September 2019.
  86. ^ "Lawyer: Tunisia's toppled ruler Zine El Abidine Ben Ali dies". CNBC. 19 September 2019. Archived from the original on 21 September 2019. Retrieved 19 September 2019.
  87. ^ "Décès de l'ex président Zine El Abidine Ben Ali". MosaiqueFM. Archived from the original on 25 September 2019. Retrieved 19 September 2019.
  88. ^ "Tunisia's former president Zine El-Abidine Ben Ali has died: lawyer". euronews. 19 September 2019. Archived from the original on 21 September 2019. Retrieved 19 September 2019.
  89. ^ "Tunisia ex-president Ben Ali buried in Muslim holy city of Medina". France 24. 21 September 2019.
  90. ^ "Reply to a parliamentary question about the Decoration of Honour" (PDF) (in German). p. 1586. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 May 2020. Retrieved 1 November 2012.
  91. ^ "Ces Légions d'honneur controversées". Archived from the original on 21 April 2018. Retrieved 1 April 2018.
  92. ^ "Visiting Tunisian President Zine El-Abid". 21 January 2011. Archived from the original on 2 September 2022. Retrieved 1 April 2018.
  93. ^ "Past Recipients of Honorary Membership in Maltese Honours and Awards and Date of Conferment" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 1 April 2018.
  94. ^ Nomination by Sovereign Ordonnance Archived 9 June 2013 at the Wayback Machine (French)
  95. ^ "Estrangeiros com Ordens Portuguesas". 2 October 1995. Archived from the original on 28 April 2019. Retrieved 2 September 2022.
  96. ^ "Cancelaria Ordinelor". canord.presidency.ro. Archived from the original on 31 March 2022. Retrieved 19 September 2019.
  97. ^ "Nelson Mandela – Speeches – Address by President Nelson Mandela at a banquet in honour of President Ben Ali of Tunisia". www.mandela.gov.za. Archived from the original on 19 September 2019. Retrieved 19 September 2019.
  98. ^ "BOE.es – Documento BOE-A-1991-13147". www.boe.es. Archived from the original on 5 February 2019. Retrieved 19 September 2019.
[edit]
Political offices
Preceded by Minister of the Interior
1986–1987 		Succeeded by
Preceded by Prime Minister of Tunisia
1987 		Succeeded by
Preceded by President of Tunisia
1987–2011 		Succeeded by
Diplomatic posts
Preceded by Chairman of the Organisation of African Unity
1994–1995 		Succeeded by
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zine_El_Abidine_Ben_Ali&oldid=1254277242"