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| File:Penicillium brevicompactum.jpg | |
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| Species: | P. brevicompactum
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| Penicillium brevicompactum Dierckx (1901)
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History and taxonomy
[edit]Penicillium brevicompactum is a species within the Ascomycota division of Fungi in the family Trichocomaceae of the genus Penicillium. In the 15th century, P.brevicompactum has been isolated from frescoes[1]. Bartolomeo Gosio was the Italial physician who discovered antibiotic compound, mycophenolic acid in 1893; he isolated a fungus from spoiled corn and named it Penicillium glaucum, later renamed to P. brevicompactum [2]. In 1901, Dierckx proposed 25 new species of the genus Penicillium, and one of them was P. brevicompactum [3].
Growth and morphology
[edit]Penicillium brevicompactum is from a subgenus Penicillium contains compact penicilli. Most common features in all Eurotiales include ascocarps lacking ostioles and paraphyses[4], asci irregularly distributed and not arranged in bundles. They are produced from fertile hyphae, have eight-spored conidiophore containing a thin wall[4]. P. brevicompactum reproduces asexually[4]. Conidial chains growth is restricted [5] and also they can be confused with the characteristics of Aspergillus[5]. Conidia 1-celled, rough-walled[6]. Conodia mostly globose to subglobose (ovoid)[7]in their appearance, smooth and slightly rounded [5] looking like the glass beads when looked under the microscope[8]. They are generally phialidic[4] since they are always produced at the base of the chain at the tips of phialates [9] and observed by their green color [10]. Conidia consist of a dense, large and compact conidiophores [5] that are borne from surface mycelium, striped usually broad: 500-800 μm long, smooth walled, compact and broad terventricillate penicilli that is 40 μm long and 40-50 μm across the phialide tips, also has quaterverticillate and biverticillate structured penicilli[11] that are immobile. It produces yellow pigments so called xanthoepocin [3]. The growth of mycelium is dependent on the temperature [12], and when their growth is sufficient enought, bigger colonies are spotted by an eye they appear cotton-like[10], which produces simple, long, erect conidiophores that branch two-thirds of the way to the tip in symmetrical or asymmetrical characteristic[7], as well as, arrange themselves in a broom-like fashion [8]. Multiple branching of the conidiophore ends in a group of phialides that bear the long conidial divergent and disordered chains[11],[8]. Metulae are presented in divergent clusters ranging from 9-15 μm long coming from rami which are short and broad, bent away from the axis[11] giving rise to phialides which are short and broad with ampulliforms 6-9 μm long[11], they are morphologically flask shaped and cylindrical in appearance[11]. Conidia appear to be ellipsoidal and is 2.5-3.5μm long, with smooth to very finely roughened walls[11]. P. brevicompactum are fast-growing [6], colonies appear 1-1.5 cm in diameter[5]. Ascospores unicellular, lacking germ pored or germ slits[4]. Mature spores are pigmented, and the temperatures that they are growing in is important in the germination and formation[12]of varying from grey-green to yellow-green[5] to yellow colonies [13], and usually give off red colour[4]. The spores of these species remain dry and are dispersed by air[4]. With the comfortable conditions of humidity and growth, most of the moulds can grow very rapidly. As it was observed on 2% malt agar at 22°C its growth reaches 1.1 cm/day, and at 32°C it is 0[12]. In nature, these species have hypha and mycelium invading organic and inorganic material and cause them to decay over time[10] by producing organic acids such as citric, fumaric, oxalic, gluconic and gallic[8].
Penicillium brevicompactum is one of the more xerophilic species of Penicillia[1] and is more common under drier conditions.[5] It grows on Dichloran 18% glycerol (DG18) agar which supports growth of xerophilic fungi from low moisture foods such as spices, flour, nuts and stored grains.[11] DG18 is useful in the enumeration of dried foods, and bacteria growth is greatly suppressed[11]. The growth of mould on dichloran rose bengal chloramphenicol (DRBC) is recommended which is best for high water activity foods [11]. Neutral creatine sucrose agar (CREA) with the Neutral Creatine Sucrose agar (CSN) mediums are also used for Penicillum subgenus. CNS medium after the incubation of P. brevicompactum for 7 days at 25°C showing a weak colony growth with a colony diameter of 8-14 mm on a mediam with neutral to weakly acid . On Czapek Yeast Extract Agar medium (CYA) at 5°C 7 days after, microcolonies become vissible, and at 25°C colonies appear dull green and 20-30 mm in diameter, penicilli are very broad, P. brevicompactum exhibits biverticillate branching and apically inflated metulae in fresh cultures [14], conidia get their ellipsoisal shape and on the CNS its reverse neutral to weakly acid colony of pale-yellowish to reddish brown colour [11]. On the CYA at 37°C there is no growth observed. Colonies on Malt Extract Agar (MEA) medium are 12-22 mm in diameter, are velutinous in texture with white mycelium, margins appear narrow and irregular, high levels of production of conidia and colonies are dull green to dark green in appearance with soluble pigment being absent[11]. On 25% Glycerol Nitrate Agar (G25N) at 25°C medium P.brevicompactum colonies are 14-22 mm in diameter, have texture granular, clear exudate and produce red brown pigmentations, white mycelium and conidiospores appear blue green; and at 5°C, microcolonies progress their growth to small colonies reaching 4 mm in diameter, and do not grow at temperature of 37°C [11].
Physiology
[edit]P. brevicompactum growth is restricted to specific temperature ranges. These species have a minimal growth at -2°C and a maximal growth of 30°C[5],[12], with the average temperature suitable for growth near 23°C [11]. P. brevicompactum grows on moist surfaces with low cellulose activity [12] which permit minimal water activity for germination of 0.78 at 25°C[11] and reduce a pH of the substrate[12]. Nutrition used for P. brevicompactum is mostly cellulose found on cardboard, ceiling tile, cellulose insulation, wood and other organic materials [5].
Penicillium brevicompactum produces Raistrick phenols: 2-carboxy-3,5-dihydroxybenzylmethylketone and 2-carboxy-3,5-dihydroxyphenylacetyl carbinol, with the aditional brevianamide B[1] and is a major producer of mycophenolic acid [15]. Mycophenolic acid has a low acute toxicity and is immunosuppressive due to its indirect toxicity in ginger [15], also, weakly toxic compound associated with an oral LD50 of 700 mg/kg in rats [11]. Mycophenolic acid has antifungal, antiviral, antitumor and antipsoriasis activities, as well as it has never been used as antibiotic[2]. However, 2-morpholinoethyl-ester (benzilic acid) obtained from P. brevicompactum used as immunosuppressant for kidney transplantation in 1995 and for heart transplant in 1998[2]. Also, it has as anti-cancer property in producing mevastatin, later named compactin which is a potent HMG-CoA reductase inhibitor [3]. In 2011, Regueira et al. (2011) discovered an enzyme that was important in MPA production of P. brevicompactum called polyketide synthase (PKS), MpaC [3]. P. brevicompactum produces toxins like T-2 toxin, deoxynivaleonol (DON), fumonisin which are the inhibitors of protein synthesis [5], zearalenone, aflatoxin- most potent carcinogen know (IARC) [5], ochratoxin [5]. Secondary metabolites determined in the strains are brevianamide A and pebrolides [5], which are the mycotoxins. Resistantce of P. brevicompactum to amphotericin B[16] is a major property of the species. These species produce two benzoic acid derivatives, one is the pebrolides which are three sesquiterpenoid benzoates and another one is N-benzyl-L-phenylalanine[17]. N-benzoyl-L-phenylalanine is converted to benzoate and this conversion produces a compound called cinnamate used in many fragrance industries as a aromatic odor[17].
Habitat and ecology
[edit]The location of Penicillium brevicompactum's is widely distributed. The majority of species is included in the tropics and warmer areas of the temperate zone [8]. They grow on wallpaper, painted materials, wood, textiles, paints, house dust, air, soil [6], plants and plant materials [5]. Commonly seen in air and soil due to the spore contamination [8], and mostly isolated from the pot plants and fresh herbs like cress [5]. Numerous isolates identified from lumber and related wood substrates [14]. Since Penicillium is well established micro-fungi on well decomposed wood[14], researchers still dont know if they are agents for the wood-decay[14].
Penicillium brevicompactum freequently isolated from spoilage of food[4] and its infection only exhibits after several months of storage[12]. They grow in environments that are most suitable for them[4] by developing a microflora according to the storage conditions[12] forming green and blue molds that are frequently found in citrus and other fruits in the refrigerator[8] and isolated from other various materials [5]. These species are mostly found in dried foods of nuts such as: beans, soybeans, pecans, pistachios, and peanuts, but also found in the Brazilian cashew nuts, maize, starch, black and white pepper[11]. In European products P. brevicompactum is mostly presented in meat products, hams, biltong and salami, furthermore, causes spoilage of refrigerated foods such as cheese [11]. Other occurrences of these species being reported in Portugal from the tap water contamination, in Australia where chick peas were damaged, and Italian sheep and goat cheese with milk products[11] that give rise to the problems occuring in the manufacture. P. brevicompactum comes into view as a natural epiphytes on cacao, and when grown on oats and wheat, major component produced is acetone[5] this is due to growing in an atmosphere with raised levels of CO2 leading to anaerobic metabolism [5]. These mold species behave as weak pathogens and cause spoilage of stored apples, mushrooms, cassava, potato, pumpkin, yams, lychees and grapes which are not attacked before harvest [11]. Moulds are mostly found in indoor environments such as in house-dust isolates[14].
Epidemiology
[edit]Penicillium species are the most widespread airborn fungi. Its prevalence of spores have caused increased levels of resporatory allergens that have been inhaled, as well as, cause of indoor mould allergy, and spoilage of food [3]. There were numerous incidents with many allergic diseases appearing in air conditioned rooms [5]. It was found that mould spores contain biologically active molecules [5] that can cause asthma and/or rhinitis along atopics[5]. Pulmanory fibrosis results from P. brevicompactum and P. olivicolor in a cool and dry climates[18]. Mycotoxin in part is responsible for specific cytotoxic and inflammatory responses [14], but it depends on the habitat biodiversity, since many common fungal taxa comes from the studies observed from food and soil [14]. The inhalation of fungi that is produced from these mycotoxins have effects on the immunological disregulation [5] with some possible neurological effects [5]. P.brevicompactum mycotoxin involves in toxicoses of humans and/or animals and causes various diseases [14]. In the case of bone marrow transplant (BMT), Penicillium fungal infection has rarely been introduced in these cases[19]. In the first case that was recently reported P. brevicompactum caused an invasive lung infection in the BMT patient [19].Others have been reported from dermatophytosis-like infection[9] and heart valve infection[7]. The spread of mycotoxins in the blood occurs with a speed of ~23 seconds to go around the entire organism [12]. There are many lesions associated with the activity of these mycotoxins causing haemorrhages [12] due to the fragility of blood capillaries in the GI tract, kidney, lungs, liver and adrenal gland [12]. However, many findings demonstrated interstitial fibrosis, cystic changes and lymphoplasmacytic interstitial infiltration [18] following the action of mycophenolic acid[12].
Biotechnological and Commercial use
[edit]The researches used a selection marker such as phleomycin resistance gene called: Sh ble, to expand on the protoplast transformation methods that were controlled by polyethylene glycol in P. brevicompactum [3]. With this analysis, transformation frequency showed 2-3 transformants/microg DNA, and with a use of PCR techology, it was observed that the foreign DNA has been integrated into the host genome, meaning that there was a specific enzymatic process that triggered this integration [3]. With few cell lineages, the observation was made that transformants kept their stability throughtout generation, showing that genetic transformation is an important marker in studying P. brevicompactum and further research in molecular biology and expansion of cell lineages throughout gene engineering of the fungus [3].
Malic acid produced by the P. brevicompactum as well as many other fruits and vegetables is used commercially by a variety of food industries as an acidulant [1]. The addition of malic acid is observed in flavoring the drinks, food and sweets. Another commercial use is in the Pleo Stolo DROPS 6X, they are used in the homeopathic anti-inflammatory medicine to treat nerve pain and inflammation, containing 10mL of P. brevicompactum 6X in the base of purified water[20]. P. brevicompactum is used in treating the waste water, that has toxic heavy metals affecting ecosystems and other microorganisms[21]. The uptake of copper has a high affinity to bind mycelium influencing its growth phase and decreasing copper cations in waste waters[21].
Preventions
[edit]To control the development of moulds indoors that cause a broad range of diseases and infections, scientists proposed to disrupt the reproductive cycle of P. brevicompactum. They developed a technique based on silver nanoparticles (AgNPs)[22]. AgNPs have an antibacterial activity, and the use of 30-200 mg/L decreases the growth of moulds, as well as, causes changes in the morphology and colour [22]. When this technique is used on M. alpina their growth is prompt [22]. Plant essential oils contain antifungal properties with a wide range of inhibition, and can inhibit the growth of moulds of 1% w/v concentration on nutrient medium [23]. Chamomilla recutita L. and Pimpinella anisum essential oils have the greatest impact on the P. brevicompactum inhibiting its growth on a media after being incubated for 24 hours [23].
References
[edit]- ^ a b c d Kozakiewicz, Zofia. "Penicillium Brevicompactum" (PDF). IMI Descriptions of Fungi and Bacteria. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
- ^ a b c Soetaert, Wim; Vandamme, Erick J (2010). Industrila Biotechnology: Sustainable Growth and Economic Success. Weinheim: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co/ KGaA. ISBN 978-3-527-31442-3. Retrieved 30 October 2015.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Refai, Mohamed; Abo El-Yazid, Heidy; Tawakkol, Wael. "Monograph on The genus Penicillium" (PDF). Retrieved 30 October 2015.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Webster,, John (1980). Introduction to fungi (2d ed. ed.). Cambridge [Eng.]: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-22888-3.
{{cite book}}:|edition=has extra text (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) - ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w Ed.by Samson, R.A.; Flannigan, B.; Flannigan, M.E.; Verhoeff, A.P.; Adan, O.C.G.; Hoekstra, E.S. (1994). Health implications of fungi in indoor environments. Amsterdam [u.a.]: Elsevier. ISBN 0-444-81997-5.
- ^ a b c Barron, George L. (1968). The genera of Hyphomycetes from soil. Baltimore, MD: Williams & Wilkins. ISBN 9780882750040.
- ^ a b c Kwon-Chung, K. June; Bennett, Joan E. (1992). Medical mycology. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger. ISBN 0812114639.
- ^ a b c d e f g Alexopoulos, Constantine J.; Sun, Charles W. Mims ; artwork by Sung-Huang; Scheetz, Raymond W. (1979). Introductory mycology (3rd ed. ed.). New York: J. Wiley. ISBN 0-471-02214-4.
{{cite book}}:|edition=has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b Rippon, John Willard (1988). Medical mycology: the pathogenic fungi and the pathogenic actinomycetes (3rd ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Saunders. ISBN 0721624448.
- ^ a b c Malloch, Dr. D. "Penicillium". Moulds: their isolation, cultivation, identification. mycology web page. Retrieved 17 October 2015.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Hocking, John I. Pitt, Ailsa D. (2009). Fungi and food spoilage (3rd ed. ed.). Dordrecht: Springer. ISBN 0387922067.
{{cite book}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help);|edition=has extra text (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Moreau, Claude; Moss, M (1979). Moulds, toxins and food. Chichester [u.a.]: Wiley. ISBN 0471996815.
- ^ Onions, A.H.S.; Allsopp, D.; Eggins, H.O.W. (1981). Smith's introduction to industrial mycology (7th ed.). London, UK: Arnold. ISBN 0-7131-2811-9.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Scott, James A.; Wong, Bess; Summerbell, Richard C.; Untereiner, Wendy A. (July 2008). "A survey of Penicillium brevicomactum and P. bialowiezense from indoor environments, with commentary on the taxonomy of the P. brevicompactum group". Botany. 86 (7): 732–741. doi:10.1139/B08-060.
{{cite journal}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help) - ^ a b Pitt, J.I.; Hocking, A.D.; Thrane, U. (2011). Advances in food mycology. New York: Springer. ISBN 9781441939418.
{{cite book}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help) - ^ Kane, Julius; Summerbell, Richard; Sigler, Lynne; Krajden, Sigmund; Land, Geoffrey (1997). Laboratory handbook of dermatophytes: a clinical guide and laboratory handbook of dermatophytes and other filamentous fungi from skin, hair, and nails. Belmont, CA: Star Pub. ISBN 978-0898631579.
- ^ a b Campbell, Iain M; Gallo, Mark A; Jones, Cynthia A (1987). "Role of cinnamate in benzoate production in Penicillium brevicompactum". Phytochemistry. 26 (4): 1413–1415.
- ^ a b Nakagawa-Yoshida, K.; Ando, M; Etches, R.I.; Dosman, J.A. (1997). "Probable New Antigens, Penicillium brevicompactum and P olivicolor" (PDF). Chest. 1 (111): 245–248. Retrieved 16 October 2015.
- ^ a b de la Cámara, R; Pinilla, I; Muñoz, E; Buendía, B; Steegmann, JL; Fernández-Rañada, JM (December 1996). "Penicillium brevicompactum as the cause of a necrotic lung ball in an allogeneic bone marrow transplant recipient". Bone marrow transplantation. 18 (6): 1189–93. PMID 8971395.
{{cite journal}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help) - ^ Daily, Med. "Pleo Stolo". NIH: U.S. National Library of Medicine. Retrieved 16 November 2015.
- ^ a b Tsekova, Kolishka; Dentcheva, Vera; Ianis, Maria (2001). "Copper Uptake by Penicillium brevicompactum". 56: 803–805.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ a b c Ogar, A; Tylko, G; Turnau, K (15 July 2015). "Antifungal properties of silver nanoparticles against indoor mould growth". The Science of the total environment. 521–522: 305–14. PMID 25847174.
- ^ a b Felšöciová, Soňa; Kačániová, Miroslava; Horská, Elena; Vukovič, Nenad; Hleba, Lukáš; Petrová, Jana; Rovná, Katarina; Stričík, Michal; Hajduová, Zuzana (24 February 2015). "Antifungal activity of essential oils against selected terverticillate penicillia". Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine. 22 (1): 38–42. doi:10.5604/12321966.1141367.