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According to its doctrine, the Catholic Church was founded by Jesus Christ.[1] The New Testament records the activities and teaching of Christ's group of sectarian Jews, his appointing of the twelve Apostles and giving them authority to continue his work.[1] The Church teaches that Jesus designated Simon Peter as the leader of the apostles by proclaiming "upon this rock I will build my church ...I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven ..."[2] The Church teaches that the coming of the Holy Spirit upon the apostles, in an event known as Pentecost, signaled the beginning of the public ministry of the Church. All duly consecrated bishops since then are considered the successors to the apostles.[3]

There is a tradition about the early history of the Church, traceable from late antiquity, which places Peter in Rome where he founded a church and served as the first bishop of the See of Rome, consecrating Linus as his successor and beginning the line of Popes.[4] The only element of this which the Catholic Encyclopedia presents as historical is Peter's martyrdom at Rome.[5] (The crucial steps towards cenralised power were taken 30 years after Constantine's death. It was during the time of Pope Damasus I that the Bishop of Rome was established in unbroken succession from Saint Peter. According to the historian Diarmaid MacCulloch - " you would be hard put to find anyone before the time of Damasus who made the claim that Peter was Bishop of Rome. But as successor of Peter, the Bishop of Rome became the Holy Father, Pope of all Christians of the West. Damasus then took his good news, not to the poor and downtrodden to whom Jesus had preached, but to the Roman nobility. ") [6]

Some historians of Christianity assert that the Catholic Church can be traced to Jesus's consecration of Peter,[7][8] while others do not make a judgement about whether or not the Church was founded by Jesus but disagree with the traditional view that the papacy originated with Peter. They contend that Rome may not have had a bishop until after the apostolic age and suggest the papal office may have been superimposed by the traditional narrative upon the primitive church.[9]

During the 1st century, the Apostles traveled around the Mediterranean region founding the first Christian communities,[10] over 40 of which had been established by the year 100.[11] By 58 AD, a large Christian community existed in Rome.[12] The New Testament gospels indicate that the earliest Christians continued to observe several traditional Jewish pieties.[13] Jesus also directed the evangelization of non-Jewish peoples, prompting circumcision controversies at the Council of Jerusalem. At this council, Paul argued that circumcision was no longer necessary. This position was supported widely and was summarized in a letter circulated in Antioch.[14]

Constantine I believed Christ had helped him win Rome. Soon Catholicism became the official state religion and paganism was suppressed.

Early Christianity accepted several Roman practices, such as slavery, campaigning primarily for humane treatment of slaves but also admonishing slaves to behave appropriately towards their masters.[15] Early Christians refused to offer sacrifices to the Roman gods or to worship Roman rulers as gods and were thus subject to persecution.[16] The first case of imperially-sponsored persecution of Christians occurred in 1st century Rome under Nero. Further such persecutions occurred under various emperors until the great persecution of Diocletian and Galerius, seen as a final attempt to wipe out Christianity.[17]

Nevertheless, the early Church continued to spread, and developed both in doctrinal and structural ways. In the 2nd century, writings by prominent teachers defined Catholic ideas in stark opposition to Gnosticism.[18] Other writers—such as Pope Clement I and Augustine of Hippo—influenced the development of Church teachings and traditions. Augustine became convinced that humanity was totally corrupted by sin, inherited from Adam and Eve, and that only God's grace could save it from hell. These writers and others are collectively known as Church Fathers.[19] While competing forms of Christianity emerged early, the Roman Church evolved the practice of meeting in "synods" (councils) to ensure that any internal doctrinal differences were quickly resolved, which facilitated broad doctrinal unity within the mainstream churches.[20]

Christianity was legalized in 313 under Constantine's Edict of Milan,[21] and declared the state religion of the Empire in 380.[22] After its legalization, a number of doctrinal disputes led to the calling of ecumenical councils. The doctrinal formulations resulting from these ecumenical councils were pivotal in the history of Christianity. The first seven Ecumenical Councils, from the First Council of Nicaea (325) to the Second Council of Nicaea (787), sought to reach an orthodox consensus and to establish a unified Christendom. In 325, the First Council of Nicaea convened in response to the rise of Arianism, the belief that Jesus had not existed eternally but was a divine being created by and therefore inferior to God the Father.[23] In order to encapsulate the basic tenets of the Christian belief, it promulgated a creed which became the basis of what is now known as the Nicene Creed.[24] In addition, it divided the church into geographical and administrative areas called dioceses.[25] The Council of Rome in 382 established the first Biblical canon when it listed the accepted books of the Old and New Testament.[26] Pope Damasus I would round off his claim that the Western Church was the legitimate heir to the original Church in Jerusalem by commissioning a new translation of the Bible in fine classical Latin. He chose his secretary Jerome, who delivered the Vulgate - the Church was now "committed to think and worship in Latin." [27] The Council of Ephesus in 431[28] and the Council of Chalcedon in 451 defined the relationship of Christ's divine and human natures, leading to splits with the Nestorians and Monophysites.[20]

Constantine moved the imperial capital to Constantinople, and the Council of Chalcedon (AD 451) elevated the See of Constantinople to a position "second in eminence and power to the bishop of Rome".[29] From circa 350 to circa 500, the bishops, or popes, of Rome steadily increased in authority.[12] Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome had particular prominence over the other dioceses. Rome was considered the see of Peter and Paul, it was wealthy and known for supporting other churches, and church scholars wanted the Roman bishop's support in doctrinal disputes.[30]

Notes

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  1. ^ a b Kreeft, p. 98, quote "The fundamental reason for being a Catholic is the historical fact that the Catholic Church was founded by Christ, was God's invention, not man's ...As the Father gave authority to Christ (Jn 5:22; Mt 28:18–20), Christ passed it on to his apostles (Lk 10:16), and they passed it on to the successors they appointed as bishops."
  2. ^ Paul VI, Pope (1964). "Lumen Gentium". Libreria Editrice Vaticana. Retrieved 19 November 2009.
  3. ^ Barry, p. 46.
  4. ^ Franzen pp. 17–18.
  5. ^ Catholic Encyclopedia (and New Catholic Encyclopedia); articles on "Peter"
  6. ^ D.MacCullochs BBCTV History of Christianity episode Two
  7. ^ Orlandis, p. 11 quote "But Jesus not only founded a religion – Christianity; he founded a Church. ... The Church was grounded on the Apostle Peter to whom Christ promised the primacy – 'and on this rock I will build my Church (Mt 16:18)'".
  8. ^ Vidmar, pp. 39-40.
  9. ^ See, among others:
    • Bokenkotter, p. 30.
    • Kelly, p. 6.
    • Duffy, paperback edition p. 13, quote "There is no sure way to settle on a date by which the office of ruling bishop had emerged in Rome, and so to name the first Pope, but the process was certainly complete by the time of Anicetus in the mid-150s, when Polycarp, the aged Bishop of Smyrna, visited Rome, and he and Anicetus debated amicably the question of the date of Easter."
  10. ^ Bokenkotter, p. 18.
  11. ^ Wilken, p. 281.
  12. ^ a b "Rome (early Christian)." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005
  13. ^ White, p. 127.
  14. ^ McGrath, pp. 174–175.
  15. ^ Stark, Rodney (2003-07-01). "The Truth About the Catholic Church and Slavery". Christianity Today.
  16. ^ Wilken, p. 282.
  17. ^ Collins, p. 53–55.
  18. ^ Davidson, p. 169, p. 181.
  19. ^ Norman, pp. 27–28.
  20. ^ a b Chadwick, Henry p. 371. Cite error: The named reference "McManners371" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  21. ^ Davidson, p. 341.
  22. ^ Wilken, p. 286.
  23. ^ M'Clintock and Strong's Cyclopedia, Volume 7, page 45a.
  24. ^ Herring, p. 60.
  25. ^ Wilken, p. 283.
  26. ^ Collins, pp. 61–62.
  27. ^ D. MacCulloch BBC TV A history of Christianity, episode Two
  28. ^ Duffy, p. 35.
  29. ^ Noble, p. 214.
  30. ^ Bokenkotter, pp. 35–36.


Revamp

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Catholic tradition holds that the Catholic Church was founded by Jesus Christ. The New Testament records Jesus's activities and teaching, his appointment of the twelve Apostles and his instructions to them to continue his work.[1][2] The Church teaches that the coming of the Holy Spirit upon the apostles, in an event known as Pentecost, signaled the beginning of the public ministry of the Church.[3] According to the traditional narrative, Peter, who was the leader of the Apostles, founded the church in Rome and served as its first bishop. The tradition maintains that Peter consecreated Linus as his successor, beginning the line of Popes.[4] Most scholars accept that Peter died in Rome and likely preached there.[5] Scholars question whether Peter actually founded the Roman church,[5] and the idea that Rome had a presiding bishop before the 2nd century.[6]

Conditions in the Roman Empire facilitated the spread of new ideas,[7][Note 1] and Jesus's apostles gained converts in Jewish communities around the Mediterranean Sea. As preachers such as Paul of Tarsus began converting Gentiles,[8] Christianity began growing away from Jewish practices,[9] and by the mid-2nd century was recognized as a separate religion.[10] The new religion was most successful in urban areas, spreading first among slaves and people of low social standing, and then among aristocratic women.[11]

The early Christian Church was very loosely organized, resulting in myriad interpretations of Christian beliefs.[12] In part to ensure a greater consistancy in their teachings, by the end of the 1st century Christian communities evolved a more structured hierarchy, with a central bishop having authority over the clergy in his city.[13] The organization of the Church began to mimic that of the Empire; bishops in politically important cities exerted greater authority over bishops in nearby cities.[14] The churches in Antioch, Alexandria, and Rome held the highest positions,[15] and by the 3rd century, the bishop of Rome began to act as a court of appeals for problems that other bishops could not resolve.[16] As early as 160, bishops held regional synods to resolve doctrinal differences.[14] Doctrine was further refined by a series of influential theologians and teachers, known collectively as the Church Fathers.[17]

persecution

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Unlike most religions in the Roman Empire, Christianity required its adherents to renounce all other gods. Christians' refusal to join pagan celebrations meant they were unable to participate in much of public life. This isolation, combined with secretiveness about Christian practices, caused other citizens to fear the religion was angering the traditional gods.[18][19] Christians were seen as troublemakers in some areas and sporadically persecuted.[20] A series of more centrally organized persecutions of Christians emerged in the late third century, when emperors decreed that the Empire's military, political, and economic crises were caused by angry gods. All residents were ordered to give sacrifices or be punished.[21] A small number of Christians were executed;[22] others fled[23] or renounced their beliefs. Disagreements over what role, if any, these apostates should have in the Church led to the Donatist and Novatianist schisms.[24]

  1. ^ Kreeft, p. 980.
  2. ^ Bokenkotter, p. 30.
  3. ^ Barry, p. 46.
  4. ^ Franzen pp. 17–18.
  5. ^ a b Duffy, p. 8.
  6. ^ MacCulloch, pp. 135–136.
  7. ^ Bokenkotter, p. 24.
  8. ^ Bokenkotter, p. 18.
  9. ^ Bokenkotter, pp. 20, 23.
  10. ^ MacCulloch, p. 109.
  11. ^ McMullen, pp. 37, 83.
  12. ^ MacCulloch, pp.127–131.
  13. ^ Duffy, pp. 9–10.
  14. ^ a b Bokenkotter, p. 35.
  15. ^ MacCulloch, p. 134.
  16. ^ Duffy, p. 18.
  17. ^ MacCulloch, p. 141.
  18. ^ MacCulloch (2010), pp. 155–159.
  19. ^ Chadwick, Henry, p. 41.
  20. ^ MacCulloch (2010), p. 164.
  21. ^ Chadwick, Henry, pp. 41–42, 55.
  22. ^ McMullen, p. 33.
  23. ^ MacCulloch (2010), p. 174.
  24. ^ Duffy, p. 20.

Constantine

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When Constantine became emperor of the Western Roman Empire in 312, he attributed his victory to the Christian God. With Licinius, (Eastern Roman emporer), he issued the Edict of Milan which mandated toleration of all religions in the empire. The edict had little effect on the attitudes of the people.[1] New laws were crafted to codify some Christian beliefs and practices.[Note 2][2] Constantine's biggest effect on Christianity was his patronage. He gave large gifts of land and money to the Church and offered tax exemptions and other special legal status to Church property and personnel.[3] These gifts and later ones combined to make the Church the largest landowner in the West by the 6th century.[4] Many of these gifts were funded through severe taxation of pagan cults.[3] Some pagan cults were forced to disband for lack of funds; when this happened the Church took over the cult's previous role of caring for the poor.[5]

During Constantine's reign, approximately half of those who identified as Christian did not subscribe to the mainstream version of the faith.[6] Constantine feared that disunity would displease God and lead to trouble for the Empire, so he took military and judicial measures to eliminate some sects.[7] To resolve other disputes, Constantine began the practice of calling ecumenical councils to determine binding interpretations of Church doctrine.[8] In 380, mainstream Christianity–as opposed to Arianism–became the official religion of the Roman Empire.[9] Christianity became more associated with the Empire, resulting in persecution for Christians living outside of the empire, as their rulers feared Christians would revolt in favor of the Emperor.[10]

In the 4th and 5th centuries, various popes contributed to the doctrine of papal primacy, that the papacy exerted authority over other bishops.[11] The doctrine was not universally accepted. Many Eastern churches believed Rome should have a place of honor, but practically should exert equal authority to other patriarchs. Many in the West believed the bishop of Rome should have supreme authority, while in some areas of the West Rome was seen as a place of appeals, but held little authority over general organizational matters.[12]

The decline of the Roman Empire led to a breakdown in civil and political institutions in the Western Roman Empire. The Church stepped forward to fill these roles. Several popes negotiated treaties with barbarian tribes to spare parts of central Italy.[13] During the reign of Pope Gregory I, the Church often paid the salaries of imperial soldiers, provided food to the poor, and gradually consolidated other formerly civic administrative duties.[14]

Notes2

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  1. ^ The empire's well-defined network of roads and waterways allowed for easier travel, while the Pax Romana made it safe to travel from one region to another. The government had encouraged inhabitants, especially those in urban areas, to learn Greek, and the common language allowed ideas to be more easily expressed and understood. (Bokenkotter, p. 24.)
  2. ^ As examples, Bokenkotter cites that Sunday became a state day of rest, that harsher punishments were given for prostitution and adultery, and that some protections were given to slaves. (Bokenkotter, pp. 41–42.)

Refs2

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  1. ^ McMullen, p. 44.
  2. ^ Bokenkotter, p. 41.
  3. ^ a b McMullen, pp. 49–50.
  4. ^ Duffy, p. 64.
  5. ^ McMullen, p. 54.
  6. ^ McMullen, p. 93.
  7. ^ Duffy, p. 27. MacCulloch, Christianity, p. 56.
  8. ^ Duffy, p. 29.
  9. ^ Duffy, p. 34.
  10. ^ MacCulloch, Christianity, p. 185.
  11. ^ Bokenkotter, pp. 84–85.
  12. ^ Duffy, pp. 41–43.
  13. ^ Bokenkotter, p. 86. Duffy, p. 63.
  14. ^ Duffy, pp. 63–64.


  • Bokenkotter, Thomas (2004). A Concise History of the Catholic Church. Doubleday. ISBN 0385505841.
  • Duffy, Eamon (2006), Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes (3 ed.), Yale University Press, ISBN 9780300115970
  • MacMullen, Ramsay (1984), Christianizing the Roman Empire: (A.D. 100–400), New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, ISBN 9780585381206

Books consulted in preparation for this section

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  • Ball, Warwick (2001). Rome in the East: the transformation of an empire. Routledge. ISBN 9780415243575 (by K)
  • Bokenkotter, Thomas (2004). A Concise History of the Catholic Church. Doubleday. ISBN 0385505841. (by K, T)
  • Cameron, Averil (1991), Christianity and the Rhetoric of Empire : The Development of Christian Discourse, Sather Classical Lectures, v. 55, University of California Press, ISBN 9780520089235 - (K) - interesting, but not at the right level for this article
  • Chadwick, Henry (1990), "The Early Christian Community", in McManners, John, The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, Oxford University Press, pp. 20–61, ISBN 0198229283 (K)
  • Chadwick, Owen (1995). A History of Christianity. Barnes & Noble. ISBN 0760773327. (K) - not a good source
  • Duffy, Eamon (2006), Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes (3 ed.), Yale University Press, ISBN 9780300115970 (K)
  • MacCulloch, Diarmaid (2010). A History of Christianity: The First Three Thousand Years. (reading in progress by K)
  • MacMullen, Ramsay (1984), Christianizing the Roman Empire: (A.D. 100–400), New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, ISBN 9780585381206 (K)
  • Markus, Robert (1990), "From Rome to the Barbarian Kingdom (339–700)", in McManners, John, The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity, Oxford University Press, pp. 62–91, ISBN 0198229283 (k)
  • Norman, Edward (2007). The Roman Catholic Church, An Illustrated History. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-25251-6. (T) - not a good source
  • Orlandis, Jose (1993). A Short History of the Catholic Church. Scepter Publishers. ISBN 1851821252. translated by Michael Adams in 1985 from Historia breve del Cristianismo, published 1983 by Ediciones Rialp, S.A. in Madrid. (K) - not a good source
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