User:Wadewitz/Academy

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1. Antoine Lavoisier: "In "Réflexions sur le Phlogistique" ("Reflections on Phlogiston," 1783), Lavoisier showed the phlogiston theory to be inconsistent."

   Jackson, Joe. A World on Fire: A Heretic, an Aristocrat, and the Race to Discover Oxygen. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-03434-7. Page 214. (Please change to sentence to say "claimed" instead of "showed" as the source indicates he did not do the showing until later.)

2. Phlogiston theory: "The theory holds that all flammable materials contain phlogiston, a substance without colour, odour, taste, or mass that is liberated in burning."

   Jackson, Joe. A World on Fire: A Heretic, an Aristocrat, and the Race to Discover Oxygen. New York: Viking. ISBN 0-670-03434-7. Pages 83-86.

3. Émilie du Châtelet: "Her book Institutions de Physique (“Lessons in Physics”) appeared in 1740; it was presented as a review of new ideas in science and philosophy to be studied by her thirteen-year-old son, but it incorporated and sought to reconcile complex ideas from the leading thinkers of the time."

   Zinsser, Judith P. La Dame D'Esprit: A Biography of the Marquise du Châtelet. New York: Viking, 2006. ISBN 0670038008. Pages 165-66. (Please change "thirteen" to "ten".)

4. William Godwin: "Godwin's parents adhered to a strict form of Calvinism. His father, a Nonconformist minister in Guestwick in Norfolk, died young, and never inspired love or much regret in his son; but in spite of wide differences of opinion, tender affection always subsisted between William Godwin and his mother, until her death at an advanced age."

   St Clair, William. The Godwins and the Shelleys: The biography of a family. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1989. ISBN 0-393-02783-X. Pages 1-11.

5. Erasmus Darwin: "Darwin formed the Lichfield Botanical Society in order to translate the works of the Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus from Latin into English. This took seven years. The result was two publications: A System of Vegetables between 1783 and 1785, and The Families of Plants in 1787. In these volumes, Darwin coined many of the English names of plants that we use today."

   Shteir, Ann B. Cultivating Women, Cultivating Science: Flora's Daughters and Botany in England 1760 to 1860. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996. ISBN 0801861756. Pages 18-28.

6. Lunar Society: "The name arose because the society would meet during the full moon, when the extra light made the journey home easier and safer (in the absence of street lighting)."

   Uglow, Jenny. The Lunar Men: Five Friends Whose Curiosity Changed the World. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2002. ISBN 0-374-19440-8. Page xiii.

7. Royal Society: "The Royal Society was founded in 1660, only a few months after the Restoration of King Charles II, by members of one or two either secretive or informal societies already in existence."

   Dear, Peter. Revolutionizing the Sciences: European Knowledge and its Ambitions, 1500-1700. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-691-08860-8. Page 118. (Please remove the word "secretive" from the sentence when you add the citation.)

8. Samuel Pepys: "The diary was written in one of the many standard forms of shorthand used in Pepys's time, in this case called Tachygraphy and devised by Thomas Shelton. "

   Tomalin, Claire. Samuel Pepys: The Unequalled Self. New York: Knopf, 2002. ISBN 0-375-41143-7. Page 38. (Note that the book Shelton published was called Tachygraphy. Please alter the sentence accordingly.)

9. Isaac Newton: "Their interest encouraged him to publish his notes On Colour, which he later expanded into his Opticks. When Robert Hooke criticised some of Newton's ideas, Newton was so offended that he withdrew from public debate. The two men remained enemies until Hooke's death."

   Jardine, Lisa. The Curious Life of Robert Hooke: The Man who Measured London. New York: Perennial, 2004. ISBN 0060538988. Pages 295-97. (Note: The dispute was over who had discovered the ideas first. Please replace the second sentence with "Hooke challenged Newton's claim to discovery, citing his own earlier work in the field, and Newton ignored him." - The part about the enemies can be deleted as that is the result of another issue.)

10. Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica: "In the plague year of 1665, Newton had already concluded that the strength of gravity falls off as the inverse square of the distance, by substituting Kepler's third law into his derivation of the centrifugal force (muddled as it was through his misunderstanding of the nature of circular motion in The lawes of motion)."

    Cohen, I. Bernard. "A Guide to Newton's Principia". The Principia: Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy. Trans. I. Bernard Cohen and Anne Whitman. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999. ISBN 0520088166. Pages 64-70. (Please change the first phrase to "in the 1660s".)

11. French Academy of Sciences: "The French Academy of Sciences (French: Académie des sciences) is a learned society, founded in 1666 by Louis XIV at the suggestion of Jean-Baptiste Colbert, to encourage and protect the spirit of French scientific research. It was at the forefront of scientific developments in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. It is one of the earliest academies of sciences."

    Dear, Peter. Revolutionizing the Sciences: European Knowledge and its Ambitions, 1500-1700. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-691-08860-8. Pages 114-15.

12. William Harvey: "William Harvey (1 April 1578 – 3 June 1657) was an English physician who was the first in the Western world to describe correctly and in exact detail the systemic circulation and properties of blood being pumped around the body by the heart."

    Cohen, I. Bernard. Revolution in Science. Cambridge: Belknap Press, 1985. ISBN 0674767772. Page 187.

13. Rudolf Virchow: "Furthermore, Virchow founded the medical disciplines of cellular pathology and comparative pathology (comparison of diseases common to humans and animals)."

    Cohen, I. Bernard. Revolution in Science. Cambridge: Belknap Press, 1985. ISBN 0674767772. Page 316.

14. William Withering: "In 1776, he published The botanical arrangement of all the vegetables naturally growing in Great Britain, an early and influential British Flora. It was the first in English based on the then new Linnaean taxonomy — a classification of all living things — devised by the eminent Swedish botanist and physician Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778)."

    Shteir, Ann B. Cultivating Women, Cultivating Science: Flora's Daughters and Botany in England 1760 to 1860. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996. ISBN 0801861756. Page 21. (Note: Please change the sentence to read "early authoritative" version rather than "first".)

15. Robert Hooke: "The Royal Society was founded in 1660, and in April 1661 the society debated a short tract on the rising of water in slender glass pipes, in which Hooke reported that the height water rose was related to the bore of the pipe (due to what is now termed capillary action)."

    Jardine, Lisa. The Curious Life of Robert Hooke: The Man who Measured London. New York: Perennial, 2004. ISBN 0060538988. Pages 93-94.

16. Micrographia: "Known for its spectacular copperplate engravings of the miniature world, particularly its fold-out plates of insects, the text itself reinforces the tremendous power of the new microscope."

    Jardine, Lisa. The Curious Life of Robert Hooke: The Man who Measured London. New York: Perennial, 2004. ISBN 0060538988. Pages 183-84.

17. Jean-Baptiste Colbert: "He has the honour of having founded the Academy of Sciences (now part of the Institut de France),"

    Dear, Peter. Revolutionizing the Sciences: European Knowledge and its Ambitions, 1500-1700. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-691-08860-8. Pages 114-15.

18. Paracelsus: "Paracelsus pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine. His hermetical views were that sickness and health in the body relied on the harmony of man (the microcosm) and Nature (macrocosm)"

    Dear, Peter. Revolutionizing the Sciences: European Knowledge and its Ambitions, 1500-1700. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-691-08860-8. Pages 49-50.

19. Francis Bacon: "Bacon did not propose an actual philosophy, but rather a method of developing philosophy. He wrote that, although philosophy at the time used the deductive syllogism to interpret nature, the philosopher should instead proceed through inductive reasoning from fact to axiom to law."

    Dear, Peter. Revolutionizing the Sciences: European Knowledge and its Ambitions, 1500-1700. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-691-08860-8. Pages 61-62.

20. Novum Organum: "The Novum Organum is a philosophical work by Francis Bacon published in 1620. The title translates as "new instrument". This is a reference toAristotle's work Organon, which was his treatise on logic and syllogism. In Novum Organum, Bacon details a new system of logic he believes to be superior to the old ways of syllogism."

    Dear, Peter. Revolutionizing the Sciences: European Knowledge and its Ambitions, 1500-1700. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-691-08860-8. Pages 57-58.

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1. Thomas Boreman

   Thomas Boreman was an 18th-century British publisher. Along with John Newbery and Mary Cooper, he helped establish children's books a viable business. His natural histories, such as A Description of Three Hundred Animals (1730) and A Description of a Great Variety of Animals and Vegetables were popular and greatly influenced later children's books. He also published the earliest known guide books for children, such as The Gigantick History of the Two Famous Giants, and Other Curiosities in Guildhall (1740). Children's literature Mary Jackson describes Boreman's books as "rather prosaic accounts of scenes". However, she acknowledges that he attempted to "leaven instruction with amusement", following the educational theories of John Locke.

   References: Jackson, Mary V. Engines of Instruction, Mischief, and Magic: Children's Literature in England from Its Beginnings to 1839. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989. ISBN 0803275706.

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2. Mary Cooper (publisher)

   Mary Cooper was an 18th-century British publisher. Along with John Newbery and Thomas Boreman, she helped establish children's books a viable business. Other than the fact that she took over her husband's printing business after his death, little is known of Cooper's life. Children's literature scholar Mary Jackson argues that Cooper's "greatest contribution" to the genre may be the collection and publication of the Mother Goose nursery rhymes. She also published two books containing a chapbook hero, which are "among the earliest attempts to reform and place in decent society that ribald, beloved denizen of chapbooks". She was also responsible for publishing a collection of Madame d'Aulnoy's fairy tales, The Court of Queen Mab (1752). Unlike Newbery, however, she published only a few books and did not pursue publication in the field.

   References: Jackson, Mary V. Engines of Instruction, Mischief, and Magic: Children's Literature in England from Its Beginnings to 1839. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1989. ISBN 0803275706.

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3. The History of Henry Milner

   The History of Henry Milner is a children's book by Mary Martha Sherwood. Published in three volumes between 1822 and 1837, it was response to Thomas Day's The History of Sandford and Merwon and what Sherwood saw the irreligion inherent in the French pedagogy represented by its esposual of Rousseau's ideas. Nevertheless, as children's literature scholar Janis Dawson points out, the structure and emphasis of Henry greatly resemble Rousseau's own Emile (1762): their pedagogies are very similar, even if their underlying assumptions about childhood are diametrically opposed. Both books isolate the child in order to encourage him to learn from the natural world, but Sherwood's Henry is naturally depraved while Rousseau's Emile is naturally good. As the series progressed, however, Sherwood's views of religion changed (she became a universalist), causing her to place greater emphasis on childhood innocence in the later volumes. Henry Milner was one of Sherwood's most successful books; children sent her fan mail, begging her to write a sequel—one sent her "ornamental pens" with which to do so. Babies were named after the hero.

   References: Dawson, Janis. "Mary Martha Sherwood." Dictionary of Literary Biography. Vol. 163: 267-281.; Hanson, David C. "Ruskin's Praeterita and Landscape in Evangelical Children's Education." Nineteenth-Century Literature 44.1 (1989): 45-66.; Smith, Naomi Royde. The State of Mind of Mrs. Sherwood. London: Macmillan and Co. Ltd., 1946.

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4. Divine Songs for Children

   Divine Songs for Children is a collection of children's poems written by the 18th-century divine Isaac Watts and published in 1715. Descended from the Puritan tradition of children's literature in England, the poems aimed to encourage virtue, to prevent vice, and to teach devotion to God. The collection was popular for well over a century: the poems became common schoolpieces and children memorized and recited them. The poems fell out of favor in the middle of the 19th century. Evidence of this can be seen in Lewis Carroll's parodies of them. According to children's literature scholar F. J. Harvey Darton, the Songs were "unprecedented" when they were published and "not seriously rivalled" until the publication of Ann and Jane Taylor's poetry in 1804. Further, they mark the "end of the Puritan aggressive, persecuting, frightened love of children" and the beginning of a children's literature that saw children more lovingly.

   Reference: Darton, F. J. Harvey. Children’s Books in England: Five Centuries of Social Life. 3rd ed. Revised by Brian Alderson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982. ISBN 0521240204.

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5. Elegiac Sonnets

   Elegiac Sonnets is a collection of sonnets written by 18th-century novelist and poet Charlotte Turner Smith. Published in 1784, the volume achieved instant success and helped initiate a revival of the form in English literature. The work also granted an aura of respectability to her later novels (poetry was considered the highest art form at the time). Smith revised Elegiac Poems several times over the years, eventually creating a two-volume work. Stuart Curran, the editor of Smith's poems, has written that Smith is "the first poet in England whom in retrospect we would call Romantic". She helped shape the "patterns of thought and conventions of style" for the period. Romantic poet William Wordsworth was the most affected by her works. He said of Smith in the 1830s that she was "a lady to whom English verse is under greater obligations than are likely to be either acknowledged or remembered". By the second half of the nineteenth century, Smith was largely forgotten, however.

   Reference: Blank, Antje. "Charlotte Smith" (subscription only). The Literary Encyclopedia. 23 June 2003. Retrieved 6 February 2009.; Curran, Stuart. "Introduction". The Poems of Charlotte Smith. Women Writers in English 1350–1850. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993. ISBN 019508358X.; Zimmerman, Sarah M. "Charlotte Smith" (subscription only). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. October 2007. Retrieved 8 February 2009.

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6. Desmond (novel)

   Desmond is a novel by Charlotte Turner Smith published in 1792. It is her most political novel and discusses the questions debated during the Revolution Controversy, a pamphlet war that erupted after the publication of Edmund Burke’s Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790), which celebrated “artistocratic ideals of benevolent paternalism, patrilineal succession, and chivlary”. Desmond was the first novel published as part of the debate and one of the first responses to discuss gender issues. Desmond is an epistolary novel, the only one Smith wrote. She was concerned that her novel in letters would not be as successful as her other works, but she felt that the form was integral to her argument. At times the text suggests the sincere emotion that the epistolary style conveyed to readers of eighteenth-century literature and at other times it parodies Burke’s sentimentalizing. Desmond was first published in three volumes by G.G.J. and J. Robinson in 1792. A second London edition as well as a Dublin edition were issued the same year. The following year, a French translation was published in four volumes.

   Reference: Blank, Antje and Janet Todd. "Introduction" and "Note on the Text". Desmond. Peterborough: Broadview Press, 2001. ISBN 1551112744.

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7. The Old Manor House

   The Old Manor House is a novel by Charlotte Turner Smith. Published in 1793, it is "frequently deemed [Smith's] best" novel for its sentimental themes and development of minor characters. Novelist Walter Scott labeled it as such and poet and critic Anna Laetitia Barbauld chose it for her anthology of The British Novelists (1810). Set during the American Revolutionary War, it tells the love story of Orlanda and Monimia, but its themes center around property, money, and inheritance. Tied together with this focus on property is a focus on parenting on education. The novel suggests that a poor education or a squandered education is the result of poor parenting.

   References: Labbe, Jacqueline M. "Introduction". The Old Manor House. Peterborough: Broadview Press, 2002. ISBN 1551112132.; Zimmerman, Sarah M. "Charlotte Smith" (subscription only). Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Oxford University Press. October 2007. Retrieved 8 February 2009.

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8. The Young Philosopher

   The Young Philosopher is a novel by Charlotte Turner Smith. Published in 1798, it is a reflection on the American and French Revolutions and endorses radical ideas associated with both. The family at the center of the novel experiences so much hardship in Britain, which is associated with class differentiation and corruption spread through wealth, that they decided to flee to America, associated with democracy and new beginnings.

   Reference: Kraft, Elizabeth. "Introduction". The Young Philosopher. Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky, 1999. ISBN 0813109620.

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9. Cochecton-Damascus Bridge

   The Cochecton-Damascus Bridge connects Cochecton, New York and Damscus, Pennsylvania by spanning the Delaware River. The first bridge, a 550-foot structure, was erected in 1817; shortly afterwards, in collapsed due to faulty construction. In 1821, a second bridge was built, with more supports and stood for 25 years. In 1846, a flood destroyed part of the bridge; it was rebuilt the next year, but destroyed again by timbers floating in the high water. A series of bridges continued to be built and destroyed over the next century. Ferries took over when the bridges were out. In 1950, the Joint Bridge Commission of Pennsylvania and New York funded a modern bridge, which cost $800,000.

   Reference:Dale, Frank T. Bridges Over The Delaware River: A History of Crossings. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 2003. ISBN 0813532132.

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1. The Adventures of David Simple

   The Adventures of David Simple is British novelist Sarah Fielding's first novel; it was published in May 1744 and was her most popular work. There was a second edition in 1761 as well as German and French translations. In 1747, she published a sequel, Familiar Letters between the Principal Characters in David Simple, and in 1753 Volume the Last. David Simple remained relatively popular for around 20 years. In 1775, for example, it was redacted into a children's book and in 1782 it was included in James Harrison's Novelist's Magazine series. However, after the end of the eighteenth century, Fielding and her works fell into obscurity until the end of the 20th century with an increase in scholarly interest in her novels, which have all been republished.

   References: Sabor, Peter. "Introduction". The Adventures of David Simple and Volume the Last. Lexington: The University of Kentucky Press, 1998. ISBN 0813109450.

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2. A Simple Story (novel)

   A Simple Story is a novel by Elizabeth Inchbald published in 1791. It is a romance, which focuses on the love interests of Miss Milner. In an introduction to the Oxford edition of the novel, scholar Jane Spencer argues that "Inchbald's concise, ironic narrative style anticipates Austen, while the passionate heroine she creates to disrupt the world of social comedy looks further forward, to the work of the Brontës." Inchbald's novel, unlike her plays, brought her "critical esteem". Inchbald drew on her own life in drawing the portrait of Miss Milner as well as the type of the coquette, which was associated with female rebellion. The moral of the novel is that women should have "a proper education", placing the novel squarely within the debates about female education during the 18th century discussed in works such as Mary Wollstonecraft's A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792). The novel's feminist overtones come not from this focus, however, but from its portrayal of fully sexualized Miss Milner.

   Spencer, Jane. "Introduction". A Simple Story. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988. ISBN 019283598X.

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3. Translation of the Letters of a Hindoo Rajah

   Translation of the Letters of a Hindoo Rajah is Elizabeth Hamilton's first novel. It is an anti-Jacobin satire and oriental fable which addresses colonialism and the education of women. In it, Hamilton recommends co-educational public education. In general, the novel was "warmly received". Conservative reviewers questioned her ability to write about topics outside the usual purview of women, specifically "oriental scholarship", while liberal reviewers complained about the novel's support of Britain's presence in East India and its attacks on radical philosophers.

   References: Perkins, Pamela and Shannon Russell. "Introduction". Translation of the Letters of a Hindoo Rajah. Peterborough: Broadview Press, 1999. ISBN 1551111756.

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4. The Enquirer (Godwin)

   The Enquirer was a series of essays published in 1797 by the philosopher William Godwin. Much of it was drawn from conversations Godwin had with his friends and family. For example, discussions he and Mary Wollstonecraft had about how to raise their children were published in an essay. The volume was influential, particularly on the young Romantic poet Percy Bysshe Shelley, who admired Godwin's philosophy.

   Reference: St Clair, William. The Godwins and the Shelleys: The biography of a family. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1989. ISBN 0-393-02783-X.

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5. Mandeville (novel)

   Mandeville is a novel by 18th-century philosopher William Godwin. It traces several generations of one family and explores the deep impact early impressions make on a person. Written in the first person, it also demonstrates how "obsession leads to madness". As biographer William St Clair explains, "Godwin's novel is an openly avowed exploration of the subconscious mind which gradually overrides and destroys conscious rationality and objective judgement." When he composed it, Godwin thought it would be his last work. In general, it was not received with as much favor as his earlier novels.

   References: St Clair, William. The Godwins and the Shelleys: The biography of a family. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1989. ISBN 0-393-02783-X.

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6. The History of Miss Betsy Thoughtless

   The History of Miss Betsy Thoughtless is novel by Eliza Haywood published in October 1751 and is one of her best-known works. Despite a poor review in the Monthly Review, the novel sold well and went into a fourth edition and was translated into French and German. A stage adaptation was even made. One of the major themes of the novel is "bad marriage, and how to avoid it, as well as how to negotiate a good one". Over the course of the novel, Betsy changes from a "thoughtless coquette" to a "thoughtful wife", a plot that has been seen as a forerunner of the domestic novel.

   Blouch, Christine. "Introduction". The History of Miss Betsy Thoughtless. Peterborough: Broadview Press, 1998. ISBN 1551111470.

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7. The Adventures of Eovaai

   The Adventures of Eovaai is a novel by Eliza Haywood that was published in 1736. In her introduction to the novel, scholar Earla Wilputte calls it a "wild blend of genres that denies easy categorization" consisting of political satire, romance, imaginary voyage, oriental fantasy, and erotica. The plot focuses on Princess Eovaai, a beautiful 15-year-old, who was given a jewel to protect her and her reign. She loses it and her kingdom becomes immersed in civil war. Transported to magical land, she is protected by a genie. Upon her return to her native land, she meets the heir to the throne, who has brought peace. They fall in love and marry. As Wilputte argues, the novel "is an exciting story of a woman who experiences political and sexual awareness and is still allowed a happy ending".

   References: Wilputte, Earla. "Introduction". The Adventures of Eovaai. Peterborough: Broadview Press, 1999. ISBN 1551111971.

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