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In this Japanese name, the surname is Kawaji.
Chief of Police
Kawaji Toshiyoshi
1st Chief of Police
In office
1874–1879
MonarchMeiji
Preceded byPost created
Succeeded byMishima Toshitsune
Personal details
Born17 June 1834
Kagoshima, Tokugawa shogunate
Died13 October 1879 (aged 45)
Tokyo, Empire of Japan
Military service
AllegianceSatsuma Domain (until 1871)
 Empire of Japan (from 1868)
Branch/serviceImperial Japanese Army
Rank Lieutenant General
CommandsThird Brigade (IJA)
Battles/warsBoshin War (WIA)
Satsuma Rebellion

Kawaji Toshiyoshi (川路 利良, 17 June 1834 – 13 October 1879), also known as Kawaji Toshikane,[1] was a Japanese military general, politician, and samurai. during the Meiji period.[2] A Satsuma Domain samurai initially tasked to study foreign systems for application in the Japanese military, Kawaji fought against forces loyal to the Tokugawa shogunate during the Boshin War. Later, his work on setting up the Japanese police at the aftermath of the Meiji Restoration, first as rasotsu, and then as keisatsu, earned him the recognition as the founder of Japan's modern police system (日本警察の父, lit. 'Father of Japanese Police').[3][4][5][6] Besides his police and military work, he was also noted for his contributions to the development of Kendo, a Japanese martial art.[7][8]

Early life and career

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Born on 17 June 1834 (OS: 11 May 1834) in Kagoshima, Kawaji Toshiyoshi was the eldest son of Kawaji Toshiaki (also known as Kawaji Toshiakira, 1801–1868) with his wife Etsuko.[1] While his generally accepted birth year is 1834, other sources mention it as either 1829 or 1836.[2][8][9] His father was a progressive Kanjō-bugyō who negotiated the Treaty of Shimoda, and campaigned for opening Japan with Tsutsui Masanori (1778–1859), a Gaikoku bugyō.[10][11] Toshiyoshi himself, while serving under Shimazu Hisamitsu, the last Satsuma Domain daimyō, was tasked to study foreign techniques to apply on the Japanese military. On 20 August 1864, he was involved in the Kinmon incident (Forbidden Gate Incident), wherein he fought against rōnin from the Chōshū Domain. Both being samurai of the Satsuma Domain, Toshiyoshi and Toshiaki played significant roles in the Boshin War and the Meiji Restoration.[5] Toshiyoshi participated in the Battle of Toba–Fushimi (27–31 January 1868), and the Battle of Aizu (6 October – 6 November 1868). Even though wounded at the Battle of Nihonmatsu (29 July 1868), he recovered so that he could participate in the Aizu campaign. After the war he was promoted to Bugyō (奉行, lit. governor or commissioner).[12][13][14][15][16]

Police reform

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Before the 1871 abolition of the han system, which effectively removed the daimyōs and bugyōs from their official positions, the new Japanese capital of Tokyo was patrolled by mixed troops of samurai. On 29 August 1871, a special force, modeled after Western-style National Gendarmerie, was organized. The influence of the French system was highlighted by Fukuzawa Yukichi, who visited France in 1869.[4] Known as rasotsu, Kawaji and Saigō Takamori (a senior samurai also hailing from the Satsuma Domain) were tasked with the recruitment of patrolmen.[2][6] A total of 2,000 patrolmen initially formed the rasotsu due to Kawaji and Saigo's efforts, and an additional patrolman was recruited for every 3,000 city inhabitants in every prefecture outside Tokyo. As of 1872, the estimated total Japanese population was 34.8 million, around 900,000 of which were in Tokyo.[17] This was followed by the voluntary surrendering of traditional samurai wear and weaponry.[18]

To further study foreign police systems, Kawaji joined the Iwakura Mission, a formal diplomatic trip to the United States, United Kingdom, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Russia, Prussia, Denmark, Sweden, Bavaria, Austria, Italy, and Switzerland. While the primary objective of the mission to renegotiate the unequal treaties was not achieved, Kawaji gathered enough information for him to formulate proposals in reforming the Japanese police, primarily focusing on financing and control structure.[5][19] He particularly benefited from the professional services of the French lawyer Prosper Gambet-Gross (1801–1868).[3] In 1873, Kawaji's recommendations, which were influenced by the centralized French system, combined with the Confucian model of hierarchy, were approved. In the same year, a police bureau (警保局, Keiho-kyoku) was organized, with Kawaji as its head, and working under the jurisdiction of the Home Ministry, headed by Minister Ōkubo Toshimichi.[4][18]

Chief of police

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Kawaji Toshiyoshi in uniform

On 9 January 1874, the Keishichō (警視庁, present Tokyo Metropolitan Police Department) was formed, with Kawaji as Daikeishi (Chief of Police, Superintendent-General), having an equivalent rank of major general.[5][18] Meanwhile, the policemen were re-branded as keisatsu (けいさつ), a name which has been retained to this day.[4] By 1876, the total number of Tokyo policemen increased to 6,000.[19] Kawaji was also careful in recruiting former enemies during the Boshin War, including elements of the Shinsengumi (新選組, lit. New Selected Group), the special police force organized by the Tokugawa shogunate in 1863.[18] One of the better known former Shinsengumi members in the police force was Third Unit Captain Saitō Hajime, who became a police inspector under the name of Fujita Gorō. He is believed to have been recruited by Kawaji himself.[20] Kawaji also recruited Gambet-Gross as his formal adviser, who would later assist in numerous court cases, especially those involving foreigners and extraterritoriality. While Kawaji himself did not possess any mastery of the French language, he acquired the services of the interpreter Numa Morikazu, who accompanied him during the Iwakura Mission.[3][19]

Philosophy

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While Kawaji was not known as an administrator, despite having a reputation comparable with the Three Great Nobles of the Restoration (維新の三傑, Ishin no Sanketsu), some regard him as the one who "established the Meiji political system"[21] and "the great benefactor of the imperial police."[4][19] In his work entitled Keisatsu Shugan (警察手眼, Hands and Eyes of the Police), he emphasized that the police exists as a preventive force tasked to complement the military. He treated the societal structure as similar to a family, wherein the government serves as a parent, and the people as its children. According to Kawaji the role of the police is that of a nanny or nursemaid, who understands the proper use of their vested powers. Further using the analogy of family, Kawaji posits that the people ought to become independent and self-reliant, and that their rights must not be violated. He also believed in a police bound by duty, yet affectionate with the public, and a chief of police in command, rather than directly involved.[5][19] He aimed to instill strict discipline among policemen. He himself slept only around four hours a day when on duty. One motto of his for police officers was this: "no sleep, no rest." While the Japanese police was later incorporated with German influences, his ideals emphasizing their role in promoting national peace was carried over, and to an extent, contributed to the development of thought control as a state policy in the years leading to the Second World War.[22]

Contribution to kendo

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Japanese police carrying swords in October 1877

In 1876, five years after a voluntary surrender of swords, the government banned the use of swords by the surviving samurai and initiated sword hunts.[18][23] Meanwhile, in an attempt to standardize the sword styles (kenjutsu) used by policemen, Kawaji recruited swordsmen from various schools to come up with a unified swordsmanship style.[7] This led to the rise of the Battotai (抜刀隊, lit. Drawn Sword Corps), which mainly featured sword-bearing policemen. However, it proved difficult to integrate all sword arts, which led to a compromise of ten practice moves (kata) for police training. Difficulties of integration notwithstanding, this integration effort led to the development of kendo, which remains in use to date.[7] In 1878, Kawaji wrote a book on swordsmanship, entitled Gekiken Saikō-ron (Revitalizing Swordsmanship), wherein he stressed that sword styles should not disappear with modernization, considering that other countries have been fascinated with them, but should be integrated as necessary skills for the police. He draws a particular example from his experience with the Satsuma Rebellion. The Junsa Kyōshūjo (Patrolman's Training Institute), founded in 1879, provided a curriculum which allowed policemen to study the sword arts during their off-hours (gekiken). In the same year, Kawaji wrote another book on swordsmanship, entitled Kendo Saikō-ron (Revitalizing Kendo), wherein he defended the significance of such sword art training for the police.[24] While the institute remained active only until 1881, the police continued to support such practice.[8]

Satsuma Rebellion

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Kawaji Toshiyoshi (in center panel with Saigō Takamori, Torio Koyata, Yamagata Aritomo, and Miyoshi Shigeomi) considered as one of Japan's famous soldiers in this 1878 woodblock print
Further information: Satsuma Rebellion

In February 1877, British diplomat Ernest Mason Satow noted allegations, which linked Kawaji and other high-ranking government officials, including Minister Ōkubo, with a planned assassination of Saigō Takamori, who, by this time, had already resigned from the government. What bolstered the credibility of this allegation was the leave of absence Kawaji had granted to a number of policemen, who proceeded to Kagoshima.[25] Satow later spoke with Navy Minister Katsu Kaishū, who cleared Ōkubo of connection to the assassination attempt, which was never carried out, but affirmed Kawaji's intention to assassinate Saigō to prevent a civil war.[26] A further confirmation of this intention was the confession of Nakahara Hisao, a sho-keibu (corporal), who was supposedly the assassin assigned to eliminate Saigō. However, the Satsuma Rebellion had already begun in response to the rumored assassination, much to Saigō's dismay, especially since he and Kawaji had been friends.[27]

On 19 February 1877, the Kumamoto Castle was attacked by around 20,000 samurai from the Satsuma Domain.[25] True to his principles of the police working together with the military, Kawaji in his capacity as a major general led the Third Brigade, accompanying Major General Ōyama Iwao of the Imperial Japanese Army, who led the Fifth Brigade. Similar to Kawaji, Ōyama had also visited France to study.[28] By 23 June, Kawaji, this time promoted as lieutenant general, and his division, had already entered Kagoshima, Saigō's headquarters (around 170 kilometers south of Kumamoto), reinforcing the beleaguered Admiral Kawamura Sumiyoshi and breaking the rebel strength. Saigō and his remaining forces, numbering around 500, were ultimately vanquished at the Battle of Shiroyama on 24 September 1877.[25]

Security issues

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On 14 May 1878, less than a year after the death of Kido Takayoshi (who was also part of the Iwakura Mission) and the Satsuma Rebellion, Minister Ōkubo Toshimichi was assassinated by Shimada Ichirō and six other samurai from the Kaga Domain (or Kanazawa Domain).[29] The assassination of a high-level government official such as Ōkubo, the last of the Three Great Nobles of the Restoration (the other two being Saigō and Kido), raised concerns with the internal security being provided both by the police and the military. Nine days after the assassination, Emperor Meiji announced his intentions to tour the country, particularly the Hokurikudō and the Tōkaidō regions. The Hokurikudō tour would also mean visiting Kanazawa. As a precautionary measure, Kawaji detained 18 Kanazawa samurai who were suspected of holding extremist views, and replaced some of the soldiers stationed in Kanazawa. Considering that Kawaji was also included on the alleged hit list of Ōkubo's assassins, measures were also required to ensure his own safety as the head of Emperor Meiji's security detail. The emperor safely arrived in Kanazawa on 2 October, and departed on 5 October.[30]

Death

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In 1879, Kawaji travelled to France once more for a study mission, which was supposed to last until 1880.[3] However, his mission was cut short, and he died upon his return to Japan, in Tokyo, on 13 October 1879. His death was publicly announced five days later, and he was buried in Aoyama Cemetery in Tokyo.[18]

References

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  1. ^ a b Wispelwey, Berend (2013). Japanese Biographical Index. Walter de Gruyter. p. 356. ISBN 9783110947984. Retrieved 25 October 2018.
  2. ^ a b c Lanman, Charles. Leading Men of Japan: With an Historical Summary of the Empire. The University of California. Published by D. Lothrop and Company, 1883. 110. Digitized November 21, 2007. Retrieved on July 19, 2009. OCLC 259703408
  3. ^ a b c d Sims, Richard (1998). French Policy Towards the Bakufu and Meiji Japan 1854–95. Psychology Press. pp. 256–259. ISBN 9781873410615. Retrieved 25 October 2018.
  4. ^ a b c d e Aldous, Christopher (2014). The Police In Occupation Japan: Control, Corruption and Resistance to Reform. Routledge. pp. 19–68. ISBN 9781134759828. Retrieved 25 October 2018.
  5. ^ a b c d e Kawaji, Toshiyoshi (1876). Keisatsu Shugan (PDF). National Police Academy. Retrieved 25 October 2018.
  6. ^ a b Ramcharan, Robin (2002). Forging a Singaporean Statehood, 1965–1995: The Contribution of Japan. Martinus Nijhoff. pp. 230–236. ISBN 9789041119520. Retrieved 25 October 2018.
  7. ^ a b c Guttmann, Allen (2001). Japanese Sports: A History. University of Hawaii Press. pp. 106–107. ISBN 9780824824648. Retrieved 29 October 2018.
  8. ^ a b c Bennett, Alexander (2015-07-31). Kendo: Culture of the Sword. University of California Press. pp. 96–105. ISBN 9780520959941. Retrieved 29 October 2018.
  9. ^ Yates, Charles (1995). Saigō Takamori: The Man Behind the Myth. Routledge. pp. 116–129, 160–166, 190. ISBN 9780710304841. Retrieved 29 October 2018.
  10. ^ Josephson, Jason Ananda (2012). The Invention of Religion in Japan. University of Chicago Press. pp. 83–87. ISBN 9780226412351. Retrieved 25 October 2018.
  11. ^ Keene, Donald (2005-06-14). Emperor of Japan: Meiji and His World, 1852–1912. Columbia University Press. pp. 1–45. ISBN 9780231518116. Retrieved 26 October 2018.
  12. ^ Enkichi Kawamura, 川村艶吉『川路利良公之伝』(Kawaji Toshiyoshi's Guide to the Public) 文会堂、(Tokyo: Bunkaidō) 1879 年, OCLC 672569357
  13. ^ Tokugorō Nakamura 中村徳五郎『川路大警視』(Chief of Police Kawaji) 日本警察新聞社、(Tokyo: Nihon Keisatsu Shinbunsha) 1932 年 OCLC 675007270
  14. ^ 鈴木蘆堂『大警視川路利良君伝』(Life of Chief of Police Kawaji Toshiyoshi) 東陽堂、1916年 ASIN B0097539E8
  15. ^ Kōzō Kaku, 加来耕三『大警視川路利良 – 幕末・明治を駆け抜けた巨人』(Superintendent General Kawaji Toshiyoshi – From the Bakumatsu to the Meiji Periods) 出版芸術社、(Tokyo: Shuppan Geijutsusha) 1999 年 ISBN 9784882931805
  16. ^ Taketoshi Kamikawa, 神川武利『大警視・川路利良 – 日本の警察を創った男』(Superintendent General Kawaji Toshiyoshi – The Man Who Created the Japanese Police) 研究所、(Tokyo: PHP) 2003 年 ISBN 4569625916
  17. ^ "Population of Japan (Final Report of The 2000 Population Census)". Statistics Bureau. Retrieved 27 November 2018.
  18. ^ a b c d e f Khun, Tiffany. "No sleep, No rest: A Survey of the Pre-Modern and Meiji Era Police System". Archived from the original on 25 October 2018. Retrieved 25 October 2018.
  19. ^ a b c d e Kornicki, Peter (1998). Meiji Japan: The Emergence of the Meiji State. Psychology Press. pp. 107–136. ISBN 9780415156189.
  20. ^ Itō Tetsuya (2003). Shinsengumi Saitō Hajime no Subete. Tokyo: Shin Jinbutsu Ōraisha. ISBN 9784404031358
  21. ^ Brown, Sidney D. "Okubo Toshimichi and the first Home Ministry bureaucracy, 1873–1878: paper presented at the Conference on Nineteenth Century Japanese Elites", University of Arizona, Tucson, 22 December 1963.
  22. ^ Tipton, Elise (2013-12-17). The Japanese Police State: Tokko in Interwar Japan. A&C Black. pp. 35–61. ISBN 9781780939742. Retrieved 7 November 2018.
  23. ^ Sansom, George (1961). A History of Japan: 1334–1615. Stanford: Stanford University Press. OCLC 1035605319
  24. ^ Sanchez Garcia, Raul (2018). The Historical Sociology of Japanese Martial Arts. Routledge. ISBN 9781351333795. Retrieved 27 November 2018.
  25. ^ a b c Augustus Henry Mounsey (1879). The Satsuma Rebellion: An Episode of Modern Japanese History. J. Murray. pp. 170–200. OCLC 458757506.
  26. ^ Hillsborough, Romulus (2014). Samurai Revolution: The Dawn of Modern Japan Seen Through the Eyes of the Shogun's Last Samurai. Tuttle Publishing. pp. 560–566. ISBN 9781462913510. Retrieved 26 October 2018.
  27. ^ Ames, Walter (1981). Police and Community in Japan. University of California Press. pp. 8–12. ISBN 9780520040700.
  28. ^ Dupuy, Trevor N. (1992). Encyclopedia of Military Biography. I B Tauris & Co Ltd. ISBN 978-1-85043-569-3.
  29. ^ Iwata, Masukazu. (1964). Ōkubo Toshimichi: The Bismarck of Japan. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 253–254 OCLC 460718723
  30. ^ Baxter, James (1994). The Meiji Unification Through the Lens of Ishikawa Prefecture. Harvard University Asia Center. pp. 88–160. ISBN 9780674564664. Retrieved 29 October 2018.

Further reading

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  • Suzuki, Rodō (1912). Daikeishi Kawaji Toshiyoshi Kunden (Instructions of Superintendent General Kawaji Toshiyoshi). Tokyo: Tōyōdō. OCLC 1020993383.
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