Tonkean macaque
| Tonkean black macaque[1] | |
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Scientific classification 
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| Domain: | Eukaryota |
| Kingdom: | Animalia |
| Phylum: | Chordata |
| Class: | Mammalia |
| Order: | Primates |
| Suborder: | Haplorhini |
| Infraorder: | Simiiformes |
| Family: | Cercopithecidae |
| Genus: | Macaca |
| Species: | M. tonkeana
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| Binomial name | |
| Macaca tonkeana (Meyer, 1899)
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| Tonkean macaque range (also found on the nearby Togian Islands, not marked on this map) | |
The Tonkean black macaque or Tonkean macaque (Macaca tonkeana) is a species of primate in the family Cercopithecidae. It is endemic to central Sulawesi and the nearby Togian Islands in Indonesia.[1] It is threatened by habitat loss.[2] Widespread mining in central Sulawesi is believed to exacerbating the problems of habitat loss.[3]
Tonkean macaques have an ape-like appearance, with males being slightly larger than females. A handful of matriarchs enforce a relatively lenient, though stable, pecking order. These macaques take significant effort in maintaining harmony within the group and practice conflict resolution to a great degree. However, this peacefulness does not extend to outside troops. If two tonkean macaque troops cross paths, intense conflicts can arise. [1]
Behavior
[edit]Communication
[edit]Studies show that male macaques often interacted with each other through facial displays and physical contact. High ranking males typically started these interaction.[4] These macaques usually interacted with those that were physically close to them most often.[4] They use contact calls to communicate with each other able social events, and loudness depends on context and distance of the individual.[5] Loud calls are used amongst members of the same social groups to inform other members of position and activity.[6] Most calls are from males to other males in the same group.[6] There may be differences among groups caused by certain conditions such as size, ecology, and sex.[6]
Social systems
[edit]As like other macaque species, the Tonkean macaque group structure is matrilineal.[5] They live is multimale-multifemale groups.[7] The size of their groups are generally around 10-30 individuals.[7]
Tonkean macaques have been known to subgroup, which is when individuals of the group split up to do certain activities such as forage and feed.[6] Their social system has been shown to be relatively relaxed since in these groups there is no interdiction of members interacting with others such as higher-ranking members.[5] The dominance hierarchy remains relatively stable over the years.[5]
In aggressive contexts, the individual that flees is considered the loser of the fight, and about 50% of the time, the one that flees is the one that was originally threatened.[5] Females have been seen retaliating against the highest-ranking male by chasing the individual up a tree.[5]
As for non-aggressive behaviors, the use of the silent bared-teeth display is to show that the individual aims to be peaceful.[5] As well, towards high-ranking macaques, individuals will use the lipsmack to communicate with them.[5] Amongst individuals, frequent behaviors consist of clasps, grunts, and lipsmacks.[5] In contexts where an individual intervenes peacefully, males were more likely to do this than females.[8] Generally, this intervention is by done by individuals who were related to one of the individuals involved in the conflict.[8] One study found that using peaceful interventions was twice as effective to stop a conflict than by using aggression.[8] Affinitive behaviors such as grooming were a common occurrence after a peaceful intervention took place.[8]
There are contexts where mothers will use affectionate-looking behavior such as hugging and nibbling to attempt to stop an aggressive conflict caused by her child, although it is not possible to know if this behavior is aggressive.[5] In order to stop a conflict, individuals uninvolved in the conflict have been seen to use the lipsmack to intervene.[5] These peaceful conciliations have been shown to be more effective than using aggression.[5]
Diet
[edit]The Tonkean macaque's diet is composed of mostly fruit, making it frugivorous.[7] Their diet particularly consists of ripe fruit from the Moraceae family.[7]
Reproduction
[edit]On average, females started their menstrual cycle around the ages of 4-5 and the length of their menstrual cycle averaged 37–41 days.[9] As well, their gestation length was approximately 173 days.[9] During ovulation, females present genital swelling.[9]
In one study, dominant males were shown to desire females that were mothers and were fertile and they blocked other potential mates by what is called mate guarding.[10] This male stays by the female for days.[5] Females with no children were then left for the lower-rank males.[10] The male Tonkean macaques that mate guarded were mildly aggressive to the females.[10] This was to stop the females from being able to choose the partner they wanted.[10]
Mature females attracted more males than young females, likely because mature females are more fertile.[10]
Parenting
[edit]In this social system, females have been shown to be allowed by mothers to alloparent their young.[5] As well, mothers have been shown to not restrict their young to connect with others in the group.[5]
References
[edit]- ^ a b Groves, C. P. (2005). Wilson, D. E.; Reeder, D. M. (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 165. ISBN 0-801-88221-4. OCLC 62265494.
- ^ a b Riley, E.; Lee, R.; Sangermano, F.; Cannon, C.; Shekelle, M (2020). "Macaca tonkeana". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2020: e.T12563A17947990. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2020-3.RLTS.T12563A17947990.en. Retrieved 15 November 2021.
- ^ Syamsul Huda M.Suhari and Ruslan Sangadji, 'Mining, deforestation threaten endemic black macaque', The Jakarta Post, 11 February 2014.
- ^ a b De Marco, Arianna; Sanna, Andrea; Cozzolino, Roberto; Thierry, Bernard (October 2014). "The function of greetings in male Tonkean macaques: Greetings in Tonkean Macaques". American Journal of Primatology. 76 (10): 989–998. doi:10.1002/ajp.22288. PMID 24719204. S2CID 24542203.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o Thierry, Bernard; Anderson, James R.; Demaria, C.; Desportes, C.; Petit, O. (1994). "Tonkean macaque behavior from the perspective of the evolution of Sulawesi macaques". Current Primatology. 2: 103–117 – via Research Gate.
- ^ a b c d Riley, Erin (January 2005). "The loud call of the Sulawesi Tonkean macaque, Macaca tonkeana". Tropical Biodiversity. 8 (3): 199–209 – via Research Gate.
- ^ a b c d Pombo, Anna R.; Waltert S., Matthias; Mansjoer, Supraptini; Mardiastuti, Ani; Mühlenberg, Michael (2004). "Home Range, Diet and Behaviour of the Tonkean Macaque (Macaca tonkeana) in Lore Lindu National Park, Sulawesi". In G. Gerold; M. Fremery; E. Guhardja; N. Claassen; J. Priess; Rheenen; M. Waltert; M. Zeller (eds.). Land use, nature conservation and the stability of rainforest margins in Southeast Asia. Springer. pp. 313–325 – via Research Gate.
- ^ a b c d Petit, O.; Thierry, Bernard (1994). "Aggressive and peaceful interventions in conflicts in Tonkean macaques". Anim. Behav. 48 (6): 1427–1436. doi:10.1006/anbe.1994.1378. S2CID 53205728 – via Research Gate.
- ^ a b c Thierry, Bernard; Heistermann, M; Aujard, F; Hodges, J.K. (1996). "Long-term data on basic reproductive parameters and evaluation of endocrine, morphological, and behavioral measures for monitoring reproductive status in a group of semifree-ranging Tonkean macaques (Macaca tonkeana)". American Journal of Primatology. 39 (1): 47–62. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-2345(1996)39:1<47::AID-AJP4>3.0.CO;2-S. PMID 31918492. S2CID 84639330 – via Research Gate.
- ^ a b c d e Rebout, Nancy; Thierry, Bernard; Sanna, Andrea; Cozzolino, Roberto; Aujard, Fabienne; De Marco, Arianna (May 2017). Tregenza, T. (ed.). "Female mate choice and male-male competition in Tonkean macaques: Who decides?". Ethology. 123 (5): 365–375. Bibcode:2017Ethol.123..365R. doi:10.1111/eth.12605.