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Supertaster

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Further information: Taste

Supertasters are individuals whose sense of taste for certain flavors and foods, such as chocolate, is far more sensitive than the average person.[1] The term originated with experimental psychologist Linda Bartoshuk and is not the result of response bias or a scaling artifact but appears to have an anatomical or biological basis.

Over the past two decades, the study of many differences in oral sensation has grown to encompass the idea of supertasting. Originally identified as the heightened response to the suprathreshold bitterness of concentrated propylthiouracil (PROP),[2] the contemporary view supports that supertasting encompasses an elevated response to all taste qualities.[3][4]

Discovery

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Reports of variations in human taste perception date back to 1888.[5] The major advance in understanding human taste variation came in 1931 with the discovery of "taste-blindness" specifically for thiourea compounds, when Arthur L. Fox, a chemist at DuPont, discovered that some people found phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) bitter, while others found it tasteless.[6][7]

Taste Exhibit at the 1931 AAAS meeting. Visitors were invited to "try this harmless substance and learn whether you are a taster or a non-taster."

Fox describes the event:

Some time ago the author [Arthur L. Fox] had occasion to prepare a quantity of phenyl-thio-carbamide, and while placing it in a bottle the dust flew around in the air. Another occupant of the laboratory, Dr. C. R. Noller, complained of the bitter taste of the dust, but the author, who was much closer, observed no taste and so stated. He even tasted some of the crystals and assured Dr. Noller they were tasteless but Dr. Noller was equally certain it was the dust he tasted. He tried some of the crystals and found them extremely bitter.[8]

At the 1931 American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) meeting, Fox collaborated with Albert F. Blakeslee, a geneticist, to have participants taste PTC: 65% found it bitter, 28% found it tasteless, and 6% described other taste qualities. Subsequent studies established that the ability to taste PTC was heritable (Mendelian recessive), indicating a genetic component to taste sensitivity.[9][10]

In the 1960s, Roland Fischer was the first to link the ability to taste PTC, and the related compound propylthiouracil (PROP) to food preference, diet, and calorie intake.[11] Today, PROP has replaced PTC for research because of a faint sulfurous odor and safety concerns with PTC.[12] In the 1990s Linda Bartoshuk and colleagues discovered that the taster group could be further divided into medium tasters and supertasters.[13][14] Research suggests 25% of the population are non-tasters, 50% are medium tasters, and 25% are supertasters.[2][15]

As a result of hundreds of studies exploring the detection threshold variation in taste sensitivity, the ability to taste the bitter compound phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) has become one of the best-known Mendelian traits in human populations, ranking alongside eye color and blood type in the canon of classic examples.[16]

Cause

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In 2003, a significant breakthrough occurred when allelic variation in the bitter receptor gene TAS2R38 was identified as the molecular basis for differences in PTC detection thresholds. This gene encodes a receptor on the tongue that binds to bitter compounds, influencing how strongly an individual perceives the taste of these substances.[17] The discovery of TAS2R38's role in taste perception was quickly extended to include sensitivity to propylthiouracil (PROP).[18] Associations between TAS2R38 and the number of fungiform papillae (FP) were suspected. However, a causal relationship with the supertaster phenomenon has not been established.[19]

Molecular genetics indicate that TAS2R38 alleles cannot explain supertasting.[19] This seems intuitive, as polymorphisms in a specific bitter receptor gene are unlikely to account for heightened responses across multiple taste qualities, oral somatosensation, and retronasal olfaction.[20][21]

In addition, environmental causes may play a role in sensitive taste. The exact mechanisms by which these causes may manifest, as well as possible evolutionary advantages to elevated taste sensitivity, are still unknown.[22][23] No clearcut benefit to the trait has been established: in some environments a heightened taste response, particularly to bitterness, would represent an important advantage in avoiding potentially toxic plant alkaloids; however, an increased response to bitterness may limit approach behavior for various palatable foods.

Moreover, the TAS2R38 genotype has been linked to a preference for sweetness in children,[24] avoidance of alcoholic beverages,[25] increased prevalence of colon cancer (because of inadequate vegetable consumption),[26] and avoidance of cigarette smoking.[27]

Prevalence

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Women

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Women are more likely to be supertasters, as are those from Asia, South America, and Africa.[28] Female supertasters tend to have a lower body mass index and better cardiovascular health. This could be because supertasters may not have a high predilection for sweet or high-fat foods compared to the average person.[29]

Identification

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Tongue colored with blue food dye revealing the fungiform papillae.

The tongue's fungiform papillae can be revealed with blue food dye.

Supertasters were initially identified based on the perceived intensity of propylthiouracil (PROP) compared to a reference salt solution. Supertasters consume more salt in comparison to those with average taste.[30] Subsequently, salt has been replaced with a non-oral gustatory standard. Therefore, if two individuals rate the same gustatory stimulus at a comparable perceptual intensity, but one gives a rating twice as large for the bitterness of a PROP solution, the experimenter can be confident the difference is real and not merely the result of how the person is using the scale.[31] Today, a phenylthiocarbamide (PTC) test strip is used to help determine if someone is a low taster. The general population tastes this as bitter about 75% of the time.[32]

Many studies do not include a cross-modal reference and categorize individuals based on the bitterness of a concentrated PROP solution[33][34] or PROP-impregnated paper.[35] Supertasters tend to have more fungiform papillae and pain receptors than tasters and non-tasters.[36] It is also possible to make a reasonably accurate self-diagnosis at home by carefully examining the tongue and looking for the number of fungiform papillae.[37]

Specific food sensitivities

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Although individual food preferences for supertasters cannot be typified, documented examples for either lessened preference or consumption include:

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Hayes JE, Keast RS (October 2011). "Two decades of supertasting: where do we stand?". Physiology & Behavior. 104 (5): 1072–1074. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.08.003. PMC 3183330. PMID 21851828.
  2. ^ a b Bartoshuk, Linda M.; Duffy, Valerie B.; Miller, Inglis J. (1994-12-01). "PTC/PROP tasting: Anatomy, psychophysics, and sex effects". Physiology & Behavior. 56 (6): 1165–1171. doi:10.1016/0031-9384(94)90361-1. ISSN 0031-9384. PMID 7878086.
  3. ^ Bajec, Martha R.; Pickering, Gary J. (November 2008). "Thermal taste, PROP responsiveness, and perception of oral sensations". Physiology & Behavior. 95 (4): 581–590. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2008.08.009. ISSN 0031-9384. PMID 18773913.
  4. ^ Pickering, Gary J.; Robert, Gordon (June 2006). "Perception of Mouthfeel Sensations Elicited by Red Wine Are Associated with Sensitivity to 6-N-Propylthiouracil". Journal of Sensory Studies. 21 (3): 249–265. doi:10.1111/j.1745-459X.2006.00065.x. ISSN 0887-8250.
  5. ^ Bailey, E. H. S.; Nichols, E. L. (1888-03-23). "On the Sense of Taste". Science. ns-11 (268): 145–146. doi:10.1126/science.ns-11.268.145.b. ISSN 0036-8075.
  6. ^ Fox, Arthur L. "Six in ten “tasteblind” to bitter chemical." Sci News Lett 9 (1931): 249.
  7. ^ Bartoshuk LM (February 2000). "Psychophysical advances aid the study of genetic variation in taste". Appetite. 34 (1): 105. doi:10.1006/appe.1999.0287. PMID 10744897. S2CID 30300307.
  8. ^ Fox, Arthur L. (January 1932). "The Relationship between Chemical Constitution and Taste". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 18 (1): 115–120. Bibcode:1932PNAS...18..115F. doi:10.1073/pnas.18.1.115. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 1076170. PMID 16577421.
  9. ^ Snyder, L. H. (1931-08-07). "Inherited Taste Deficiency". Science. 74 (1910): 151–152. Bibcode:1931Sci....74..151S. doi:10.1126/science.74.1910.151. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 17782493.
  10. ^ Blakeslee, Albert F. (Jan 1932). "Genetics of Sensory Thresholds: Taste for Phenyl Thio Carbamide". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 18 (1): 120–130. Bibcode:1932PNAS...18..120B. doi:10.1073/pnas.18.1.120. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 1076171. PMID 16577422.
  11. ^ Tepper BJ, Banni S, Melis M, Crnjar R, Tomassini Barbarossa I (August 2014). "Genetic sensitivity to the bitter taste of 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) and its association with physiological mechanisms controlling body mass index (BMI)". Nutrients. 6 (9): 3363–3381. doi:10.3390/nu6093363. PMC 4179166. PMID 25166026.
  12. ^ Texley J, Kwan T, Summers J (1 January 2004). Investigating Safely: A Guide for High School Teachers. NSTA Press. pp. 90–. ISBN 978-0-87355-202-8.
  13. ^ Bartoshuk LM (1991). "Sweetness: history, preference, and genetic variability". Food Technology. 45 (11): 108–13. ISSN 0015-6639. INIST 5536670.
  14. ^ Di Lorenzo PM, Youngentob SL (15 April 2003). "Olfaction and Taste". Handbook of Psychology: 269–297. doi:10.1002/0471264385.wei0310. ISBN 0471264385.
  15. ^ Robino, Antonietta; Mezzavilla, Massimo; Pirastu, Nicola; Dognini, Maddalena; Tepper, Beverly J.; Gasparini, Paolo (2014-03-13). "A Population-Based Approach to Study the Impact of PROP Perception on Food Liking in Populations along the Silk Road". PLOS ONE. 9 (3): e91716. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...991716R. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0091716. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 3953580. PMID 24626196.
  16. ^ Stephen Wooding, Phenylthiocarbamide: A 75-Year Adventure in Genetics and Natural Selection, Genetics, Volume 172, Issue 4, 1 April 2006, Pages 2015–2023, https://doi.org/10.1093/genetics/172.4.2015
  17. ^ Kim, Un-kyung; Jorgenson, Eric; Coon, Hilary; Leppert, Mark; Risch, Neil; Drayna, Dennis (2003-02-21). "Positional Cloning of the Human Quantitative Trait Locus Underlying Taste Sensitivity to Phenylthiocarbamide". Science. 299 (5610): 1221–1225. Bibcode:2003Sci...299.1221K. doi:10.1126/science.1080190. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 12595690.
  18. ^ Duffy, Valerie B.; Davidson, Andrew C.; Kidd, Judith R.; Kidd, Kenneth K.; Speed, William C.; Pakstis, Andrew J.; Reed, Danielle R.; Snyder, Derek J.; Bartoshuk, Linda M. (November 2004). "Bitter Receptor Gene ( TAS2R38 ), 6- n -Propylthiouracil (PROP) Bitterness and Alcohol Intake". Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 28 (11): 1629–1637. doi:10.1097/01.ALC.0000145789.55183.D4. ISSN 0145-6008. PMC 1397913. PMID 15547448.
  19. ^ a b Hayes, John E.; Bartoshuk, Linda M.; Kidd, Judith R.; Duffy, Valerie B. (March 2008). "Supertasting and PROP Bitterness Depends on More Than the TAS2R38 Gene". Chemical Senses. 33 (3): 255–265. doi:10.1093/chemse/bjm084. ISSN 1464-3553. PMID 18209019.
  20. ^ Hayes, John E.; Keast, Russell S.J. (October 2011). "Two decades of supertasting: Where do we stand?". Physiology & Behavior. 104 (5): 1072–1074. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.08.003. PMC 3183330. PMID 21851828.
  21. ^ Calò, Carla; Padiglia, Alessandra; Zonza, Andrea; Corrias, Laura; Contu, Paolo; Tepper, Beverly J.; Barbarossa, Iole Tomassini (October 2011). "Polymorphisms in TAS2R38 and the taste bud trophic factor, gustin gene co-operate in modulating PROP taste phenotype". Physiology & Behavior. 104 (5): 1065–1071. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2011.06.013. ISSN 0031-9384. PMID 21712049.
  22. ^ Navarro-Allende A, Khataan N, El-Sohemy A (16 September 2008). "Impact of genetic and environmental determinants of taste with food preferences in older adults". Journal of Nutrition for the Elderly. 27 (3–4): 267–276. doi:10.1080/01639360802261920. PMID 19042575. S2CID 44506616.
  23. ^ McDonald, John H. (December 8, 2011). "Myths of Human Genetics: PTC tasting". udel.edu. pp. 54–60. Archived from the original on 26 February 2024.
  24. ^ Mennella JA, Pepino MY, Reed DR (February 2005). "Genetic and environmental determinants of bitter perception and sweet preferences". Pediatrics. 115 (2): e216–e222. doi:10.1542/peds.2004-1582. PMC 1397914. PMID 15687429.
  25. ^ Duffy VB, Davidson AC, Kidd JR, Kidd KK, Speed WC, Pakstis AJ, et al. (November 2004). "Bitter receptor gene (TAS2R38), 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) bitterness and alcohol intake". Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research. 28 (11): 1629–1637. doi:10.1097/01.ALC.0000145789.55183.D4. PMC 1397913. PMID 15547448.
  26. ^ Basson MD, Bartoshuk LM, Dichello SZ, Panzini L, Weiffenbach JM, Duffy VB (March 2005). "Association between 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) bitterness and colonic neoplasms". Digestive Diseases and Sciences. 50 (3): 483–489. doi:10.1007/s10620-005-2462-7. PMID 15810630. S2CID 21099629.
  27. ^ Cannon DS, Baker TB, Piper ME, Scholand MB, Lawrence DL, Drayna DT, et al. (December 2005). "Associations between phenylthiocarbamide gene polymorphisms and cigarette smoking". Nicotine & Tobacco Research. 7 (6): 853–858. doi:10.1080/14622200500330209. PMID 16298720.
  28. ^ "BBC - Science & Nature - Human Body and Mind - Science of supertasters". www.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 2023-05-10.
  29. ^ a b Crosby G (2016-05-31). "Super-Tasters and Non-Tasters: Is it Better to Be Average?". The Nutrition Source. Harvard University. Retrieved 2020-06-04.
  30. ^ Hayes, John E.; Sullivan, Bridget S.; Duffy, Valerie B. (2010-06-16). "Explaining variability in sodium intake through oral sensory phenotype, salt sensation and liking". Physiology & Behavior. 100 (4): 369–380. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2010.03.017. ISSN 0031-9384. PMC 2874635. PMID 20380843.
  31. ^ Lim, Juyun; Urban, Lenka; Green, Barry G. (July 2008). "Measures of Individual Differences in Taste and Creaminess Perception". Chemical Senses. 33 (6): 493–501. doi:10.1093/chemse/bjn016. PMC 2899842. PMID 18453638.
  32. ^ "PTC The Genetics of Bitter Taste". learn.genetics.utah.edu.
  33. ^ Prescott J, Ripandelli N, Wakeling I (October 2001). "Binary taste mixture interactions in prop non-tasters, medium-tasters and super-tasters". Chemical Senses. 26 (8): 993–1003. doi:10.1093/chemse/26.8.993. PMID 11595676.
  34. ^ a b Lanier SA, Hayes JE, Duffy VB (January 2005). "Sweet and bitter tastes of alcoholic beverages mediate alcohol intake in of-age undergraduates". Physiology & Behavior. 83 (5): 821–831. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2004.10.004. PMID 15639168. S2CID 40244872.
  35. ^ Sipiora ML, Murtaugh MA, Gregoire MB, Duffy VB (May 2000). "Bitter taste perception and severe vomiting in pregnancy". Physiology & Behavior. 69 (3): 259–267. doi:10.1016/S0031-9384(00)00223-7. PMID 10869591. S2CID 26518676.
  36. ^ "Super-Tasters and Non-Tasters: Is it Better to Be Average?". The Nutrition Source. May 31, 2016. Retrieved 2020-06-04.
  37. ^ "Super-Tasting Science: Find Out If You're a "Supertaster"!". Science Buddies. Scientific American. December 27, 2012. Retrieved 2021-07-18.
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  39. ^ a b c d Drewnowski A, Henderson SA, Barratt-Fornell A (April 2001). "Genetic taste markers and food preferences". Drug Metabolism and Disposition. 29 (4 Pt 2): 535–538. PMID 11259346.
  40. ^ a b Dinehart ME, Hayes JE, Bartoshuk LM, Lanier SL, Duffy VB (February 2006). "Bitter taste markers explain variability in vegetable sweetness, bitterness, and intake". Physiology & Behavior. 87 (2): 304–313. doi:10.1016/j.physbeh.2005.10.018. PMID 16368118. S2CID 24387624.
  41. ^ Sandell MA, Breslin PA (September 2006). "Variability in a taste-receptor gene determines whether we taste toxins in food". Current Biology. 16 (18): R792–R794. Bibcode:2006CBio...16.R792S. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2006.08.049. PMID 16979544.
  42. ^ Swan N (7 January 1998). "Health Report – 22/12/1997: Super Tasters". ABC More. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 2013-08-29.
  43. ^ Gardner A (16 June 2010). "Love Salt? You Might Be a "Supertaster"". Health.com. Archived from the original on 14 January 2012. Retrieved 2014-12-09.

Further reading

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