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Reading disability

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A reading disability is a condition in which a person displays difficulty reading. Examples of reading disabilities include developmental dyslexia and alexia (acquired dyslexia).

Definition

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The National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke defines reading disability or dyslexia as follows: "Dyslexia is a brain-based type of learning disability that specifically impairs a person's ability to read. These individuals typically read at levels significantly lower than expected despite having normal intelligence. Although the disorder varies from person to person, common characteristics among people with dyslexia are difficulty with spelling, phonological processing (the manipulation of sounds), and rapid visual-verbal responding. In adults, dyslexia usually occurs after a brain injury or in the context of dementia. It can also be inherited in some families, and recent studies have identified a number of genes that may predispose an individual to developing dyslexia."[1] The NINDS definition is not in keeping with the bulk of scientific studies that conclude that there is no evidence to suggest that dyslexia and intelligence are related.[2] Definition is more in keeping with modern research and debunked discrepancy model of dyslexia diagnosis:[3]

  • Dyslexia is a learning difficulty that primarily affects the skills involved in accurate and fluent word reading and spelling.
  • Characteristic features of dyslexia are difficulties in phonological awareness, verbal memory and verbal processing speed.
  • Dyslexia occurs across the range of intellectual abilities.
  • It is best thought of as a continuum, not a distinct category, and there are no clear cut-off points.
  • Co-occurring difficulties may be seen in aspects of language, motor coordination, mental calculation, concentration and personal organisation, but these are not, by themselves, markers of dyslexia.
  • A good indication of the severity and persistence of dyslexic difficulties can be gained by examining how the individual responds or has responded to well-founded intervention.

Reading disabilities

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Dyslexia

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Main article: Dyslexia

Dyslexia is a learning disability that manifests itself as a difficulty with word decoding and reading fluency. Comprehension may be affected as a result of difficulties with decoding, but is not a primary feature of dyslexia. It is separate and distinct from reading difficulties resulting from other causes, such as a non-neurological deficiency with vision or hearing, or from poor or inadequate reading instruction.[4] It is estimated that dyslexia affects between 5–17% of the population.[5][6][7] Dyslexia has been proposed to have three cognitive subtypes (auditory, visual and attentional), although individual cases of dyslexia are better explained by the underlying neuropsychological deficits and co-occurring learning disabilities (e.g. attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, math disability, etc.).[6][8][9][10][11][12] Although not an intellectual disability, it is considered both a learning disability[13][14] and a reading disability.[13][15] Dyslexia and IQ are not interrelated, since reading and cognition develop independently in individuals who have dyslexia.[16] "Nerve problems can cause damage to the control of eye muscles which can also cause diplopia."[17]

Students with dyslexia require a tailored approach in writing courses due to the impact of their neurological condition on their reading, writing, and spelling abilities.[18][19] This approach is intended to aid their learning and maximize their potential. The incorporation of inclusive writing practices within the curriculum allows students with dyslexia to achieve a parallel education as their peers who do not have dyslexia or other reading disabilities.[18][19] These practices provide effective strategies for writing courses to cater to the unique needs of students with dyslexia.[18][19] For instance, John Corrigan, a graduate student with dyslexia, indicates that "the best method is one-on-one [assistance]"[19] from professors or teachers in order to elevate the students' comprehension and strengthen their abilities in the classroom. Additionally, Corrigan states that the incorporation of audible text options are beneficial to students who are developing their writing skills.[19] Corrigan's claim also implies that recorded lectures or self-recording class materials would serve a student with dyslexia.[19] Sioned Exley's study concluded that an alternative approach to implementing inclusive writing practices is through kinesthetic teaching.[18][20][21] Exley argues that a student with dyslexia may understand material through visual learning opposed to auditory engagement, as auditory processing tends to be a compromised ability in many people with dyslexia.[18][20][21][22] Implementing inclusive writing practices in the education system, specifically targeting youth education, will pave a route for increased higher-level educational opportunities for individuals with dyslexia in their adult years.[23]

Hyperlexia

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Main article: Hyperlexia

Hyperlexic children are characterized by word-reading ability well above what would be expected given their ages and IQs.[24] Hyperlexia can be viewed as a superability in which word recognition ability goes far above expected levels of skill.[25] However, in spite of few problems with decoding, comprehension is poor. Some hyperlexics also have trouble understanding speech.[25] Most children with hyperlexia lie on the autism spectrum.[25] Between 5–10% of autistic children have been estimated to be hyperlexic.[26]

Remediation

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See also: Dyslexia interventions, Management of dyslexia, and List of phonics programs

Remediation includes both appropriate remedial instruction and classroom accommodations.

See also

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References

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  1. ^ dyslexia at NINDS
  2. ^ Rose, James. "Sir" (PDF). Institute of Education. United Kingdom Government. Retrieved March 4, 2016.
  3. ^ Stanovich, K (Winter 1991). "Discrepancy Definitions of Reading Disability: Has Intelligence Led Us Astray?". Reading Research Quarterly. 26 (1): 7–29. doi:10.2307/747729. JSTOR 747729.
  4. ^ Stanovich, Keith E. (December 1988). "Explaining the Differences Between the Dyslexic and the Garden-Variety Poor Reader: The Phonological-Core Variable-Difference Model". Journal of Learning Disabilities. 21 (10): 590–604. doi:10.1177/002221948802101003. PMID 2465364. S2CID 19788503.
  5. ^ McCandliss, Bruce D.; Noble, Kimberly G. (2003). "The development of reading impairment: A cognitive neuroscience model". Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews. 9 (3): 196–205. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.587.4158. doi:10.1002/mrdd.10080. PMID 12953299.
  6. ^ a b Czepita, Damian; Łodygowska, Ewa (2006). "Rola narządu wzroku w przebiegu dysleksji rozwojowej" [Role of the organ of vision in the course of developmental dyslexia]. Klinika Oczna (in Polish). 108 (1): 110–113. PMID 16883955.
  7. ^ Birsh, Judith R. (2005). "Research and reading disability". In Judith R. Birsh (ed.). Multisensory Teaching of Basic Language Skills. Baltimore, Maryland: Paul H. Brookes Publishing. p. 8. ISBN 978-1-55766-676-5. OCLC 57652241.
  8. ^ Pennington, Bruce F.; Santerre-Lemmon, Laura; Rosenberg, Jennifer; MacDonald, Beatriz; Boada, Richard; Friend, Angela; Leopold, Daniel R.; Samuelsson, Stefan; Byrne, Brian; Willcutt, Erik G.; Olson, Richard K. (February 2012). "Individual prediction of dyslexia by single versus multiple deficit models". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 121 (1): 212–224. doi:10.1037/a0025823. PMC 3270218. PMID 22022952.
  9. ^ Valdois, Sylviane; Bosse, Marie-Line; Tainturier, Marie-Josèphe (November 2004). "The cognitive deficits responsible for developmental dyslexia: Review of evidence for a selective visual attentional disorder". Dyslexia. 10 (4): 339–363. doi:10.1002/dys.284. PMID 15573964.
  10. ^ Heim, Stefan; Tschierse, Julia; Amunts, Katrin; Wilms, Marcus; Vossel, Simone; Willmes, Klaus; Grabowska, Anna; Huber, Walter (2008). "Cognitive subtypes of dyslexia". Acta Neurobiologiae Experimentalis. 68 (1): 73–82. doi:10.55782/ane-2008-1674. PMID 18389017.
  11. ^ Facoetti, Andrea; Lorusso, Maria Luisa; Paganoni, Pierluigi; Cattaneo, Carmen; Galli, Raffaella; Umiltà, Carlo; Mascetti, Gian Gastone (April 2003). "Auditory and visual automatic attention deficits in developmental dyslexia". Cognitive Brain Research. 16 (2): 185–191. doi:10.1016/S0926-6410(02)00270-7. PMID 12668226.
  12. ^ Ahissar, Merav (November 2007). "Dyslexia and the anchoring-deficit hypothesis". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 11 (11): 458–465. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2007.08.015. PMID 17983834. S2CID 11682478.
  13. ^ a b "Learning Disorders: MeSH Result". nlm.nih.gov/mesh/meshhome.html. NLM MeSH Browser. Retrieved 2009-11-06.
  14. ^ "Dyslexia". ncld.org. The National Center for Learning Disabilities, Inc. Archived from the original on 2009-12-17. Retrieved 2009-11-07.
  15. ^ "Dyslexia". Mayo Foundation for Medical Education and Research. Retrieved 2009-11-07.
  16. ^ Ferrer, Emilio; Shaywitz, Bennett A.; Holahan, John M.; Marchione, Karen; Shaywitz, Sally E. (January 2010). "Uncoupling of Reading and IQ Over Time: Empirical Evidence for a Definition of Dyslexia". Psychological Science. 21 (1): 93–101. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.459.3866. doi:10.1177/0956797609354084. PMID 20424029. S2CID 15568570.
  17. ^ "Diplopia (Double Vision)". WebMD.
  18. ^ a b c d e Taylor, Mark J.; Duffy, Sandi; England, David (27 March 2009). "Teaching students with dyslexia in higher education". Education + Training. 51 (2): 139–149. doi:10.1108/00400910910941291.
  19. ^ a b c d e f Corrigan, John R. (1997). "Teaching Writing to Dyslexic Students: A Guide for the Composition Instructor". Teaching English in the Two-Year College. 24 (3): 205–211. doi:10.58680/tetyc19973825. ProQuest 220956908.
  20. ^ a b Exley, Sioned (2004-01-06). "The effectiveness of teaching strategies for students with dyslexia based on their preferred learning styles". British Journal of Special Education. 30 (4): 213–220. doi:10.1111/j.0952-3383.2003.00313.x.
  21. ^ a b Reid, Gavin (2011). Dyslexia. doi:10.1002/9781119970897. ISBN 978-1-119-97089-7.[page needed]
  22. ^ "Chichester/Fishbourne (West Sussex, England)". Northern Europe. 2013. pp. 169–172. doi:10.4324/9780203059159-40. ISBN 978-0-203-05915-9.
  23. ^ Moojen, Sônia Maria Pallaoro; Gonçalves, Hosana Alves; Bassôa, Ana; Navas, Ana Luiza; de Jou, Graciela; Miguel, Emílio Sánchez (April 2020). "Adults with dyslexia: how can they achieve academic success despite impairments in basic reading and writing abilities? The role of text structure sensitivity as a compensatory skill". Annals of Dyslexia. 70 (1): 115–140. doi:10.1007/s11881-020-00195-w. PMID 32221905. S2CID 255435267.
  24. ^ Newman, Tina M.; Macomber, Donna; Naples, Adam J.; Babitz, Tammy; Volkmar, Fred; Grigorenko, Elena L. (5 April 2007). "Hyperlexia in Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 37 (4): 760–774. doi:10.1007/s10803-006-0206-y. PMID 17048093. S2CID 23401685.
  25. ^ a b c Grigorenko, Elena L.; Klin, Ami; Volkmar, Fred (November 2003). "Annotation: Hyperlexia: disability or superability?: Hyperlexia: disability or superability?". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 44 (8): 1079–1091. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.456.6283. doi:10.1111/1469-7610.00193. PMID 14626452.
  26. ^ Burd, Larry; Kerbeshian, Jacob (June 1985). "Hyperlexia and a Variant of Hypergraphia". Perceptual and Motor Skills. 60 (3): 940–942. doi:10.2466/pms.1985.60.3.940. PMID 3927257. S2CID 6158584.
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