Jump to content

Pescetarianism

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Seaganism)

Pescetarianism


Japanese sushi; shrimp cocktail with lettuce; pizza topped with sardines
Description
A diet in which seafood is the only meat
Related Dietary Choices
Related diets
Diet classification table

Pescetarianism (/ˌpɛskəˈtɛəri.ənɪzəm/ PESK-ə-TAIR-ee-ə-niz-əm; sometimes spelled pescatarianism)[1] is a dietary practice in which seafood is the only source of meat in an otherwise vegetarian diet.[2] The inclusion of other animal products, such as eggs and dairy, is optional. According to research conducted from 2017 to 2018, approximately 3% of adults worldwide are pescetarian.[3][4]

Definition and etymology

[edit]
Look up pescetarian in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

"Pescetarian" is a neologism formed as a portmanteau of the Italian word "pesce" ("fish") and the English word "vegetarian".[5] The term was coined in the United Kingdom in the late 1980s.[6] "Pesco-vegetarian" is a synonymous term that is seldom used outside of academic research, but it has sometimes appeared in other American publications and literature since at least 1980.[7][8]

History

[edit]
See also: History of vegetarianism

Early history

[edit]

The first vegetarians in written western history may have been the Pythagoreans, a title derived from the Greek philosopher Pythagoras. Though Pythagoras loaned his name to the meatless diet, some biographers suspect he may have eaten fish as well at some points,[9] which would have made him not a vegetarian but a pescatarian by today's standards.[10] Many of Pythagoras's philosophies inspired Plato, who advocated for the moral and nutritional superiority of vegetarian-oriented diets. In Plato's ideal republic, a healthy diet would consist of cereals, seeds, beans, fruit, milk, honey and fish.[11][12]

In 675, the consumption of livestock and wild animals was banned in Japan by Emperor Tenmu, due to the influence of Buddhism and the lack of arable land.[13] However, Tenmu did not ban the consumption of deer or wild boar.[14] Subsequently, in the year 737 of the Nara period, the Emperor Shōmu approved the eating of fish and shellfish. During the 1200 years from the Nara period to the Meiji Restoration in the latter half of the 19th century, Japanese people ate vegetarian-style meals, and on special occasions, seafood was served.[15] Exceptions were wild fowl served amongst the Heian nobility, [16] and when Europeans arrived in Japan in the 15th century, the Japanese diet included boar meat.[17]

Several orders of monks in medieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic reasons, but none of them abstained from the consumption of fish; these monks were not vegetarians, but some were pescetarians.[18]

Marcion of Sinope and his followers ate fish but no fowl or red meat.[19] Fish was seen by the Marcionites as a holier kind of food.[20] They consumed bread, fish, honey, milk, and vegetables.[19][21]

The "Hearers" of the ecclesiastical hierarchy of Manichaeism lived on a diet of fish, grain, and vegetables.[22] Consumption of land animals was forbidden, based on the Manichaean belief that "fish, being born in and of the waters, and without any sexual connexion on the part of other fishes, are free from the taint which pollutes all animals".[23]

The Rule of Saint Benedict insisted upon total abstinence of meat from four-footed animals, except in cases of the sick.[24] Benedictine monks thus followed a diet based on vegetables, eggs, milk, butter, cheese, and fish.[25] Paul the Deacon specified that cheese, eggs, and fish were part of a monk's ordinary diet.[25] Benedictine monk Walafrid Strabo commented, "Some salt, bread, leeks, fish and wine; that is our menu."[26]

The Carthusians followed a strict diet that consisted of fish, cheese, eggs, and vegetables, with only bread and water on Fridays.[24]

In the 13th century, Cistercian monks consumed fish and eggs.[27] Ponds were created for fish farming.[27] From the early 14th century, Benedictine and Cistercian monks no longer abstained from consuming meat of four-footed animals.[27][28] In 1336, Pope Benedict XII permitted monks to eat meat four days a week outside of the fast season if it was not served in the refectory.[28]

The anchorites of England ate a pescetarian diet of fish seasoned with apples and herbs, bean or pea soup and milk, butter and oil.[29][30]

19th century to present

[edit]

Francis William Newman, who was President of the Vegetarian Society from 1873 to 1883, made an associate membership possible for people who were not completely vegetarian like pescetarians.[31][32] Eventually, in the 1890s, Newman himself switched from following an ovo-lacto-vegetarian diet to a pescetarian diet, with the rationale that fish do not waste land space, are plentiful due to high reproduction rates, do not care for their young and have no parental feelings to violate, and can be captured and slaughtered in ways that inflict minimal pain.[33]

A 2016 book Seagan Eating promoted a seafood diet,[34][35] which is distinguished from ordinary pescetarian diets because it discourages consumption of dairy and eggs.[36]

[edit]

As of 2020, pescetarianism has been described as a plant-based diet.[37][38] Regular fish consumption and decreased red meat consumption are recognized as dietary practices that may promote health.[39] Pescetarianism has been shown to be more popular among women than men in all regions where the data on sex ratio is available.

Plant foods, such as fresh produce, make up most of a pescetarian diet.

Global

[edit]

In 2018, Ipsos MORI reported 73% of people worldwide followed a diet where both meat and non-animal products were regularly consumed, with 14% considered as flexitarians, 5% vegetarians, 3% vegans, and 3% pescetarians.[4] These are similar to the results collected by GlobalData just a year earlier; where 23% of the sample had below average meat consumption, 5% had vegetarian diets, 2% had vegan diets and 3% had pescetarian diets.[3] Globally, pescetarian diets seem to have increased in popularity in the mid-to-late 2010s; only 40% of pescetarians surveyed had been adhering to the diet for more than a couple years and another 18% reported adhering to diet for about a year.[4]

United Kingdom

[edit]

A 2018 poll of 2,000 United Kingdom adults found that ≈12% of adults adhered to a meat-free diet; with 2% vegan, 6–7% ovo-lacto-vegetarian, and 4% pescetarian.[40][41][42] Different studies and survey have found a more modest number of meat-abstainers; a 2021 survey found 10% of Brits were meat abstainers with 3% of the population being pescetarians.[43]

In Great Britain as of January 2019, women between 18 and 24 years of age were the most likely demographic group to follow a pescetarian diet. In general, men were less interested in pescetarianism, and men 35 years and above were the least likely to adhere to a pescetarian diet pattern.[44]

Other regions

[edit]

In 2018, one survey found that people in Africa and the Middle East had a high incidence of pescetarian diets (5%) when compared to other areas of the world.[4] In Europe, the incidence of pescetarianism varied by country, according to a 2020 survey documenting the dietary practices of residents in seven European nations: on average, pescetarianism was about 3% of the EU population, with slightly higher incidence in Germany and Belgium.[45]

Comparison of selected vegetarian and semi-vegetarian diets (view template)
Plants Dairy Eggs Seafood Poultry All other animals
Vegetarianism Lacto-ovo vegetarianism Yes Yes Yes No No No
Lacto vegetarianism Yes Yes No No No No
Ovo vegetarianism Yes No Yes No No No
Veganism Yes No No No No No
Semi-vegetarianism Flexitarianism Yes Yes Yes Sometimes Sometimes Sometimes
Pollotarianism Yes Maybe Maybe Maybe Yes No
Pescetarianism Yes Maybe Maybe Yes No No

Motivations and rationale

[edit]

Animal welfare concerns

[edit]

Pescetarianism may be perceived as a more ethical choice because fish and shellfish may not experience fear, pain, and suffering as more complex animals like mammals and other tetrapods do.[46][47][48] As a counterargument, from a scientific viewpoint, there are functional areas in the brains of fish that can make them feel pain. Furthermore, fish have pain receptors similar to humans, and evidence shows that pain signals are sent from these receptors to the brain, enabling fish to feel pain.[49] However, this is an ongoing debate.[50][51]

Some pescetarians may regard their diet as a transition to vegetarianism, while others may consider it an ethical compromise,[52] often as a practical necessity to obtain nutrients that are absent, not easily found, or not readily bioavailable in plants.[53]

Sustainability and environmental concerns

[edit]
See also: Sustainable diet and climatarian diet

It is common for all kinds of meat-abstainers to participate in the "green movement" and be conscientious about global food sustainability and environmentalism;[54] switching to a pescetarian dietary pattern can potentially positively affect both.[55][54] People may adopt a pescetarian diet out of desire to lower their dietary carbon footprint.[56][57] A 2014 lifecycle analysis of greenhouse gas emissions estimated that a pescetarian diet would provide a 45% reduction in emissions compared to an omnivorous diet.[58][59] Research on the diets of over 55,000 UK residents found that meat-eaters had dietary greenhouse gas emissions that were about 50% higher than pescetarians.[60] Compared to an omnivorous diet, pescetarian diets also had 64% less environmental impact overall when the amount of greenhouse gas emissions, land use and cumulative energy demand were assessed together.[61]

A Japanese study in 2018 found that various diet changes could successfully reduce the Japanese food-nitrogen footprint, particularly by adopting a pescetarian diet which may reduce the impact on nitrogen.[62] Switching from an omnivorous diet to a pescetarian diet also carries high potential in reducing American food loss because fish and shellfish contribute markedly less to food waste at the primary, retail and consumer levels than both red meat and poultry.[63] Additionally, water conservation may be a motivator; a multinational study found that switching a conventional diet for a balanced pescetarian diet could reduce dietary water footprint by 33% to 55%.[64]

Health research

[edit]

A common reason for adoption of pescetarianism may be health-related, such as fish and plant food consumption as part of the Mediterranean diet, which is associated with lowered risk of cardiovascular diseases.[65][66] Pescetarian diets are under preliminary research for their potential to affect diabetes,[67] long-term weight gain,[68] and all-cause mortality.[69]

Other considerations

[edit]
Further information: Mercury in fish

Concerns have been raised about consuming some fish varieties containing toxins such as mercury and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB),[70] although it is possible to select fish that contain little or no mercury or moderate the consumption of mercury-containing fish.[71] According to a 2018 global consumer survey, the majority of pescetarians, vegetarians and vegans (87% prevalence) reported that their food product choices are influenced by ideological factors, like ethical concerns, environmental impact or social responsibility.[72] Pescetarians may be motivated by ethical concerns that are not related to animal protection or environmental protection, such as humanitarian or religious reasons. Viable sources of protein that can be consumed by food-insecure humans are not wasted on filter feeders or wild-caught fish.

In religions

[edit]
Further information: Vegetarianism and religion

Christianity

[edit]
Main article: Christian vegetarianism

In both the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox tradition, pescetarianism is referred to as a form of abstinence. During fast periods, Eastern Orthodox Christians often abstain from meat, dairy, eggs, and fish, but on holidays that occur on fast days (for example, 15 August on a Wednesday or Friday), fish is allowed, while meat and dairy remain forbidden.[73] Anthonian fasting[74] has been considered a pescetarian-like variant of Orthodox fasting as poultry and red meat are restricted throughout the year but fish, eggs, oils, dairy and wine are allowed most days.[75][76]

Pescetarianism is relatively popular among Seven-day Adventists when compared to the general population; in the 2000s 10% of North American Seven-day Adventists who were surveyed reported adhering to a pescetarian diet.[77] The higher popularity is likely due to the church promoting a "health message" to its followers and considering meat-consumption to be unfavorable. Adventists who eat seafood do not eat shellfish because the church expects all followers to only eat kosher foods deemed permissible by Leviticus 11.[78]

Judaism

[edit]

Pescetarianism (provided the fish is kosher) conforms to Jewish dietary laws. Fish and all other seafood animals must have both fins and scales to be considered kosher. Aquatic mammals such as dolphins and whales are not kosher, nor are cartilaginous fish such as sharks and rays, since they all have dermal denticles and not bony-fish scales. The lack of fins and scales also deems crustaceans (e.g. shrimp, crab, lobster) and molluscs (e.g. oyster, clam, conch, octopus, squid) to be "treif"—non-kosher. Roe, such as caviar, must come from a kosher fish to be permitted.[79][80] Pescetarian diets simplify adherence to the Judaic separation of meat and dairy products, as kosher fish is "pareve"—neither "milk" nor "meat".[81]

In 2015, members of the Liberal Judaism synagogue in Manchester founded The Pescetarian Society, citing pescetarianism as originally a Jewish diet, and pescetarianism as a form of vegetarianism.[82] The society has several advocacy interests; public health, promoting healthy eating, praising pescetarianism as "the natural human diet", supporting better animal welfare, bringing awareness to the climate change crisis and demanding seafood be sustainable and responsibly-caught.[82][83]

Hinduism

[edit]

Some Hindus, by choice, follow a strict lacto-vegetarian diet and in India up to 44% of Hindus self-identify as some type of vegetarian.[84] However, there are Hindus who consume fish. They are mainly from coastal south-western India.[85] This community regards seafood in general as "vegetables from the sea", and refrains from eating land-based animals. Other Hindus who consume seafood are those from Bengal, Odisha, and other coastal areas.[86] In Bengal, Hindus consume fish and are known to cook it daily.[87]

Rastafari

[edit]

The expression of Ital eating can vary from Rasta to Rasta but a general principle is that food should be natural or pure, and from the earth.[88] Though the Rastafari are generally associated with avid vegetarianism and veganism, a large minority of adherents do deem certain kinds[89] of fish to be an acceptable exception in the Ital diet. Rastafari who permit fish will avoid eating all kinds of shellfish as they are considered to be "unclean" scavengers,[90][91] a belief that stems from biblical teachings.[92]

See also

[edit]
  • Ikaria Study – Dietary study of long-lived Ikarian people found to have semi-vegetarian diets similar to pescetarianism.
  • List of diets – A comprehensive index of diets covered on Wikipedia
  • Mediterranean diet – Diet inspired by eating habits of the lands surrounding the Mediterranean Sea.
  • Okinawa diet – Eating habits of the indigenous people of the Ryukyu Islands.
  • Semi-vegetarianism – Other forms of semi-vegetarianism that include occasional seafood or meat consumption.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Luna, Taryn (1 July 2015). "Legal Sea Foods launches 'Pescatarianism' ad campaign". The Boston Globe. Archived from the original on 7 July 2015. Retrieved 6 July 2015.
  2. ^ "Pescetarianism | Description, Seafood, Vegetarianism, & Benefits | Britannica".
  3. ^ a b "Flexitarian diet on trend, says GlobalData". Fitness Magazine. 12 September 2018. Archived from the original on 14 February 2021. Retrieved 6 February 2021.
  4. ^ a b c d "An exploration into diets around the world" (PDF). Ipsos. UK. August 2018. pp. 2, 10, 11. Archived (PDF) from the original on 12 May 2019. Retrieved 12 May 2019.
  5. ^ "Definition of Pescatarian by Merriam-Webster". Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on 9 June 2021. Retrieved 5 September 2016.
  6. ^ "Pescaterian". Merriam-Webster Dictionary. 31 May 2022. Retrieved 29 June 2022.
  7. ^ Journal of Nursing Care. Health Science Division of Technomic Publishing Company, Incorporated. 1980. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 24 October 2021.
  8. ^ Hanson, Liz (February 1982). How to give a Vegetarian Cooking Class. Vegetarian Times. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 3 December 2021.
  9. ^ "Pythagoras". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 19 February 2022.
  10. ^ Avey, Tori (28 January 2014). "From Pythagorean to Pescatarian – The Evolution of Vegetarianism". PBS. Archived from the original on 4 October 2018. Retrieved 4 August 2020.
  11. ^ "The Republic Of Plato: An Ideal Commonwealth by Jowett, Benjamin (Translator): Very Good Hardcover (1901) | Back Lane Books". www.abebooks.co.uk. Retrieved 11 February 2022.
  12. ^ Skiadas, Panagiotis K.; Lascaratos, John G. (July 2001). "Dietetics in ancient Greek philosophy: Plato's concepts of healthy diet". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 55 (7): 532–537. doi:10.1038/sj.ejcn.1601179. PMID 11464226. S2CID 1916679.
  13. ^ Hisao Nagayama. 「たべもの江戸史」 新人物往来社, 1976. ISBN 4309473105 p. 66. 『、「牛馬犬猿鶏の宍(肉)を食うことなかれ」の殺生禁断の令は有名拍車をかけたのが仏教の影響である。』
  14. ^ Ishige, Naomici (17 June 2014). History Of Japanese Food. Routledge. pp. 53–54. doi:10.4324/9780203357903. ISBN 978-1-136-60255-9.
  15. ^ Mitsuru Kakimoto. International Vegetarian Union, http://www.ivu.org/news/3-98/japan1.html Archived 11 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
  16. ^ Ishige, The History and Culture of Japanese Food, pg 73-74
  17. ^ Shimizu. Akira, Meat Eating in the Kojimachi District of Edo, 2010. in Japanese Foodways, Past and Present, University of Illiois Press, Assman, Stepanie and Rath, Eric C eds. 2010
  18. ^ Lutterbach, Hubertus: Der Fleischverzicht im Christentum, in: Saeculum 50/II (1999) p. 202.
  19. ^ a b May, Gerhard; Greschat, Katharina. (2013). Marcion und seine kirchengeschichtliche Wirkung / Marcion and His Impact on Church History. De Gruyter. pp. 213–216. ISBN 978-3-11-017599-8
  20. ^ Fontaine, Petrus Franciscus Maria. (1994). Gnostic Dualism in Asia Minor During the First Centuries, A.D. II. Brill Academic Publishing. p. 84. ISBN 978-90-5063-346-8
  21. ^ Tyson, Joseph B. (2006). Marcion and Luke-Acts: A Defining Struggle. University of South Carolina Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-57003-650-7
  22. ^ Spencer, Colin. (2002). Vegetarianism: A History. Four Walls Eight Windows. pp. 135–136. ISBN 1-56858-238-2
  23. ^ Conybeare, Frederick Cornwallis (1911). "Asceticism" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 2 (11th ed.). pp. 717–720. see para 7:-.....The Manichaeans held that.....
  24. ^ a b Keevill, Graham; Aston, Mick; Hall, Teresa. (2017). Monastic Archaeology. Oxbow Books. p. 54. ISBN 978-1-78570-567-0
  25. ^ a b Butler, Edward Cuthbert. (1919). Benedictine Monachism: Studies in Benedictine Life and Rule. London: Longmans, Green. p. 44
  26. ^ Riché, Pierre. (1978). Daily Life in the World of Charlemagne. University of Pennsylvania Press. p. 171. ISBN 0-8122-1096-4
  27. ^ a b c Barber, Bruno. (2004). The Cistercian Abbey of St Mary Stratford Langthorne, Essex. Museum of London Archaeology Service. p. 158. ISBN 978-1-901992-38-0
  28. ^ a b Kerr, Julie. (2006). Life in the Medieval Cloister. Continuum. pp. 48–50. ISBN 978-1-84725-161-9
  29. ^ Clay, Rotha Mary. (1914). The Hermits and Anchorites of England. London: Methuen. p. 104
  30. ^ Anson, Peter F. (1932). The Quest of Solitude. London: J. M. Dent. p. 232. "The food of an anchorite or an anchoress was mainly vegetarian. They could have soups or “pottages” made of herbs, peas, or beans; or “furmity,” sweetened with milk, butter, or oil, and fish seasoned with apples or herbs."
  31. ^ Spencer, Colin. (1995). The Heretic's Feast: A History of Vegetarianism. University Press of New England. pp. 274–276. ISBN 0-87451-708-7
  32. ^ Yeh, Hsin-Yi. (2013). "Boundaries, Entities, and Modern Vegetarianism: Examining the Emergence of the First Vegetarian Organization". Qualitative Inquiry. 19: 298–309. doi:10.1177/1077800412471516. S2CID 143788478. Moreover, at the early phase of vegetarianism, while some adherents avoided eating flesh of land animals and birds, they ate fish (Newman, 1874)
  33. ^ May Vegetarians Eat Fish?. Dundee Evening Telegraph (11 September 1895).
  34. ^ "Fishy business: should we all be seagans?". The Guardian. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
  35. ^ Erbentraut, Joseph. (2017). "'Seagan' Diet Suggests It's Not A Crazy Idea For Vegans To Eat Seafood". huffingtonpost.co.uk. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
  36. ^ "Seaganism". macmillandictionary.com. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
  37. ^ "Plant-based, vegetarian and vegan diets" Archived 6 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine. Heart Foundation NZ. Retrieved 30 October 2020.
  38. ^ Summerfield, Liane M. (8 August 2012). Nutrition, Exercise, and Behavior: An Integrated Approach to Weight Management (2nd ed.). Cengage Learning. pp. 181–182. ISBN 978-0-8400-6924-5. A plant-based diet is not necessarily a vegetarian diet. Many people on plant-based diets continue to use meat products and/or fish but in smaller quantities.
  39. ^ "The Pescetarian Diet By Judith C. Thalheimer, RD, LDN" Archived 27 April 2019 at the Wayback Machine. Today's Dietitian. Retrieved 30 October 2020.
  40. ^ Tatum, Megan (13 April 2018). "12% of Brits follow meat-free diet, The Grocer research shows". The Grocer. Archived from the original on 22 August 2021. Retrieved 22 August 2021.
  41. ^ "Consumer Focus: the rise of plant-based food products and implications for meat and dairy" (PDF). Agriculture and Horticulture Development Board (ADHB). July 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 February 2021. Retrieved 4 February 2021.
  42. ^ Johnson, Georgia-Rose (30 January 2019). "UK diet trends". Finder UK. Archived from the original on 12 May 2019. Retrieved 12 May 2019.
  43. ^ "What share of people say they are vegetarian, vegan, or flexitarian?". Our World in Data. Retrieved 13 June 2022.
  44. ^ "Adults following pescatarian diet GB 2019". Statista. Archived from the original on 15 January 2021. Retrieved 12 January 2021.
  45. ^ "The results of the Veganz nutrition study 2020 are here!". Veganz. 30 October 2020. Archived from the original on 26 August 2021. Retrieved 26 August 2021.
  46. ^ "Do fish feel pain? Not as humans do, study suggests". ScienceDaily. 8 August 2013. Archived from the original on 8 November 2017. Retrieved 18 January 2018.
  47. ^ Rose, J D; Arlinghaus, R; Cooke, S J; Diggles, B K; Sawynok, W; Stevens, E D; Wynne, C D L (March 2014). "Can fish really feel pain?" (PDF). Fish and Fisheries. 15 (1): 97–133. Bibcode:2014AqFF...15...97R. doi:10.1111/faf.12010. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 November 2020. Retrieved 29 October 2020.
  48. ^ Key, Brian (March 2015). "Fish do not feel pain and its implications for understanding phenomenal consciousness". Biology and Philosophy. 30 (2): 149–165. doi:10.1007/s10539-014-9469-4. PMC 4356734. PMID 25798021.
  49. ^ "Fish have feelings too: Why animal sentience means we should rethink food". euronews.green. 25 June 2023. Retrieved 7 May 2024.
  50. ^ "It's Official: Fish Feel Pain". Smithsonian Magazine. Archived from the original on 25 May 2021. Retrieved 28 May 2021.
  51. ^ "Scientists say fish feel pain. It could lead to major changes in the fishing industry". The Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on 15 October 2021. Retrieved 28 May 2021.
  52. ^ Ronald L. Sandler, Food Ethics: The Basics, Routledge, 2014, p. 74.
  53. ^ Rohrer, Finlo (5 November 2009). "The rise of the non-veggie vegetarian". BBC News. Archived from the original on 7 November 2009. Retrieved 22 July 2013.
  54. ^ a b Hoehn, Daniel; Margallo, María; Laso, Jara; García-Herrero, Isabel; Bala, Alba; Fullana-i-Palmer, Pere; Irabien, Angel; Aldaco, Rubén (January 2019). "Energy Embedded in Food Loss Management and in the Production of Uneaten Food: Seeking a Sustainable Pathway". Energies. 12 (4): 767. doi:10.3390/en12040767. hdl:10902/15909.
  55. ^ Tilman, David; Clark, Michael (November 2014). "Global diets link environmental sustainability and human health". Nature. 515 (7528): 518–522. Bibcode:2014Natur.515..518T. doi:10.1038/nature13959. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 25383533. S2CID 4453972. Archived from the original on 16 February 2021. Retrieved 6 February 2021.
  56. ^ "Carbon footprint factsheet". Center for Sustainable Systems, University of Michigan. 2018. Archived from the original on 19 June 2020. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  57. ^ Scarborough, P.; Appleby, P. N.; Mizdrak, A.; Briggs, A. D.; Travis, R. C.; Bradbury, K. E.; Key, T. J. (11 June 2014). "Dietary greenhouse gas emissions of meat-eaters, fish-eaters, vegetarians and vegans in the UK". Climatic Change. 125 (2). Springer: 179–192. Bibcode:2014ClCh..125..179S. doi:10.1007/s10584-014-1169-1. PMC 4372775. PMID 25834298.
  58. ^ Magkos, Faidon; Tetens, Inge; Bügel, Susanne Gjedsted; Felby, Claus; Schacht, Simon Rønnow; Hill, James O; Ravussin, Eric; Astrup, Arne (1 January 2020). "A Perspective on the Transition to Plant-Based Diets: a Diet Change May Attenuate Climate Change, but Can It Also Attenuate Obesity and Chronic Disease Risk?". Advances in Nutrition. 11 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1093/advances/nmz090. ISSN 2161-8313. PMC 7442415. PMID 31504086.
  59. ^ Tilman, David; Clark, Michael (1 November 2014). "Global diets link environmental sustainability and human health". Nature. 515 (7528): 518–522. Bibcode:2014Natur.515..518T. doi:10.1038/nature13959. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 25383533. S2CID 4453972. Archived from the original on 16 February 2021. Retrieved 6 February 2021.
  60. ^ Scarborough, Peter; Appleby, Paul N.; Mizdrak, Anja; Briggs, Adam D. M.; Travis, Ruth C.; Bradbury, Kathryn E.; Key, Timothy J. (1 July 2014). "Dietary greenhouse gas emissions of meat-eaters, fish-eaters, vegetarians and vegans in the UK". Climatic Change. 125 (2): 179–192. Bibcode:2014ClCh..125..179S. doi:10.1007/s10584-014-1169-1. ISSN 1573-1480. PMC 4372775. PMID 25834298.
  61. ^ Rabès, Anaëlle; Seconda, L.; Langevin, B.; Allès, B.; Touvier, M.; Hercberg, S.; Lairon, D.; Baudry, J.; Pointereau, P.; Kesse-Guyot, E. (2020). "Greenhouse gas emissions, energy demand and land use associated with omnivorous, pesco-vegetarian, vegetarian, and vegan diets accounting for farming practices". Sustainable Production and Consumption. 22: 138–146. Bibcode:2020SusPC..22..138R. doi:10.1016/j.spc.2020.02.010. S2CID 216444801.
  62. ^ Oita, Azusa; Nagano, Ichiro; Matsuda, Hiroyuki (1 April 2018). "Food nitrogen footprint reductions related to a balanced Japanese diet". Ambio. 47 (3): 318–326. Bibcode:2018Ambio..47..318O. doi:10.1007/s13280-017-0944-4. ISSN 0044-7447. PMC 5857260. PMID 28913773.
  63. ^ "Beef Research - Food Waste". Beef Research. Retrieved 25 March 2022.
  64. ^ "Change your diet to save both water and your health". ScienceDaily. Archived from the original on 25 June 2021. Retrieved 23 March 2021.
  65. ^ O’Keefe, James H.; Torres-Acosta, Noel; O’Keefe, Evan L.; Saeed, Ibrahim M.; Lavie, Carl J.; Smith, Sarah E.; Ros, Emilio (22 September 2020). "A Pesco-Mediterranean diet with intermittent fasting". Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 76 (12): 1484–1493. doi:10.1016/j.jacc.2020.07.049. ISSN 0735-1097. PMID 32943166.
  66. ^ Estruch, Ramon; Sacanella, Emilio; Ros, Emilio (4 January 2021). "Should we all go pesco-vegetarian?". European Heart Journal. 42 (12): 1144–1146. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehaa1088. ISSN 0195-668X. PMID 33393612.
  67. ^ Papier, Keren; Appleby, Paul N.; Fensom, Georgina K.; Knuppel, Anika; Perez-Cornago, Aurora; Schmidt, Julie A.; Tong, Tammy Y. N.; Key, Timothy J. (25 February 2019). "Vegetarian diets and risk of hospitalisation or death with diabetes in British adults: results from the EPIC-Oxford study". Nutrition & Diabetes. 9 (1): 7. doi:10.1038/s41387-019-0074-0. ISSN 2044-4052. PMC 6389979. PMID 30804320.
  68. ^ Knüppel, A.; Appleby, P. N.; Key, T. J. (7 March 2019). "Weight change over 14 years in meat-eaters, pescatarians, vegetarians and vegans". Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 78 (OCE1). doi:10.1017/S0029665119000417. ISSN 0029-6651.
  69. ^ Schwingshackl, Lukas; Schwedhelm, Carolina; Hoffmann, Georg; Lampousi, Anna-Maria; Knüppel, Sven; Iqbal, Khalid; Bechthold, Angela; Schlesinger, Sabrina; Boeing, Heiner (26 April 2017). "Food groups and risk of all-cause mortality: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 105 (6): 1462–1473. doi:10.3945/ajcn.117.153148. ISSN 0002-9165. PMID 28446499. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 19 May 2019.
  70. ^ Committee on the Toxicological Effects of Methylmercury, Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology, National Research Council, Council, National Research; Studies, Division on Earth Life; Sciences, Commission on Life; Toxicology, Board on Environmental Studies and; Methylmercury, Committee on the Toxicological Effects of (2000). Toxicological Effects of Methylmercury. National Academies Press. ISBN 978-0-309-07140-6. Archived from the original on 6 February 2012. Retrieved 12 May 2007.
  71. ^ "Experts Say Consumers Can Eat Around Toxins In Fish". ScienceDaily. Archived from the original on 30 April 2019. Retrieved 7 January 2015.
  72. ^ "Survey: Most meat eaters are influenced by ethical concerns". Verdict Food Service. 30 July 2019. Retrieved 29 April 2022.
  73. ^ "The Fasting Rule of the Orthodox Church". www.abbamoses.com. Archived from the original on 8 August 2017. Retrieved 24 March 2019.
  74. ^ "Fasting Rules". St. Anthony. 17 May 2013. Archived from the original on 9 January 2020. Retrieved 4 March 2021.
  75. ^ Karras, Spyridon; Koufakis, Theocharis; Petróczi, Andrea; Folkerts, Dirk; Kypraiou, Maria; Grammatiki, Maria; Mulrooney, Hilda; Naughton, Declan; Skoutas, Dimitrios; Adamidou, Lilian; Zebekakis, Pantelis; Kotsa, Kalliopi (21 August 2020). "Effects of Orthodox fasting on cardiometabolic risk factors: a comparative evaluation between lay fasters and Athonian monks". Endocrine Abstracts. 70. doi:10.1530/endoabs.70.EP559. S2CID 225300273. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 7 February 2021.
  76. ^ Karras, S N; Persynaki, A; Petróczi, A; Barkans, E; Mulrooney, H; Kypraiou, M; Tzotzas, T; Tziomalos, K; Kotsa, K; Tsioudas, A A; Pichard, C; Naughton, D P (June 2017). "Health benefits and consequences of the Eastern Orthodox fasting in monks of Mount Athos: a cross-sectional study". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 71 (6): 743–749. doi:10.1038/ejcn.2017.26. PMID 28327563. S2CID 4768215. Archived from the original on 10 January 2022. Retrieved 7 February 2021.
  77. ^ "Adventist Health Study-2". adventisthealthstudy.org. Retrieved 5 January 2021.
  78. ^ Shurtleff, W.; Aoyagi, A. (2014). History of Seventh-day Adventist Work with Soyfoods, Vegetarianism, Meat Alternatives, Wheat Gluten, Dietary Fiber and Peanut Butter (1863-2013): Extensively Annotated Bibliography and Sourcebook (PDF). Soyinfo Center. p. 1081. ISBN 978-1-928914-64-8. Retrieved 10 April 2018.
  79. ^ Aryeh Citron, "All About Kosher Fish" Archived 16 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine
  80. ^ Verifying Kosher Fish Archived 28 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine OU Kosher Certification. Retrieved 9 August 2019.
  81. ^ Menachem Posner. "May fish be consumed with dairy?". Chabad.org. Archived from the original on 1 October 2018. Retrieved 14 March 2021.
  82. ^ a b "Pescetarian Society Home Page". The Pescetarian Society. 2019. Archived from the original on 27 September 2018. Retrieved 10 January 2022.
  83. ^ "Popular Pescetarian Meals – Healthy Living". thepescetariansociety.org. 10 June 2022. Retrieved 11 June 2022.
  84. ^ Corichi, Manolo (8 July 2021). "Eight-in-ten Indians limit meat in their diets, and four-in-ten consider themselves vegetarian". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 31 January 2022.
  85. ^ Axelrod, P; Fuerch, MA (1998). "Portuguese Orientalism and the making of the village communities of Goa". Ethnohistory. 45 (3): 439. doi:10.2307/483320. JSTOR 483320.
  86. ^ Chakravarti, A. K. (December 1974). "Regional Preference for Food: Some Aspects of Food Habit Patterns in India". The Canadian Geographer. 18 (4): 395–410. Bibcode:1974CGeog..18..395C. doi:10.1111/j.1541-0064.1974.tb00212.x.
  87. ^ Sinclair-Brull, Wendy. (1997). Female Ascetics: Hierarchy and Purity in an Indian Religious Movement. Curzon Press. p. 158. ISBN 0-7007-0422-1
  88. ^ Meehan, Peter (12 October 2012). "Ital Is Vital". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 8 November 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
  89. ^ "Rasta fare | alimentarium". www.alimentarium.org. Archived from the original on 8 November 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
  90. ^ O'Brien, Derek; Carter, Vaughan (2002). "Chant Down Babylon: Freedom of Religion and the Rastafarian Challenge to Majoritarianism". Journal of Law and Religion. 18 (1): 219–248. doi:10.2307/1051499. ISSN 0748-0814. JSTOR 1051499. Archived from the original on 8 November 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
  91. ^ "The Ital Diet, A Rastafarian Recipe For Eating Right". Worldcrunch. 8 June 2021. Archived from the original on 8 November 2021. Retrieved 8 November 2021.
  92. ^ Snider (28 June 2020). "Rastafari Culture". Black History Month. Retrieved 25 January 2022.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pescetarianism&oldid=1253584354#19th_century_to_present"