Rajput painting

Rajput painting, painting of the regional Hindu courts during the Mughal era, roughly from the end of the 16th century to the middle of the 19th century. Traditionally, Rajput painting is further divided into Rajasthan and Pahari painting^[1]^[2]^[3] which flourished in two different areas "far apart from each other in terms of distance but all under the rule of Rajput chiefs, and bound together by a common culture".^[4]

The nomenclature 'Rajput painting' was introduced by Ananda Coomaraswamy in his book Rajput Painting, Being an Account of the Hindu Paintings of Rajasthan and the Panjab Himalayas (1916), which was the first monography of the subject.^[5] Rajput painting evolved from the Hindu painting of the 16th century (sometimes called "Early Rajput Painting"), which substantially changed under the influence of Mughal painting. Different styles of Rajput painting range from conservative idioms that preserve traditional values of bright colour, flatness and abstract form (e.g. Mewar and Basohli) to those showing greater Mughal impact in their refinement and cool colour (e.g. Bikaner and Kangra). But despite absorption of the new techniques and subjects from Mughals (and also, to a lesser extent, from European and Deccan painting), Rajput artists never lost their own distinct identity, which manifested itself especially in Indian predilection to universal rather than individual. Local styles of Rajput painting developed in the 17th century, when Mughal painting dominated over Indian art. In the 18th century, Mughal school was only one of the many among regional schools of painting and Rajput art was much more important in its overall output. In the 19th century, with political decline of Rajput states and rising influence of Western painting and photography, Rajput painting gradually ceased to exist.

Background: Painting in North India before Mughals and their influence

Jain tradition

Dominant form of the Indian painting in late medieval period was manuscript painting and the earliest Indian books were "usually on pages made from leaves of the talipot palm; long and horizontal in format, the pages were pierced and threaded onto cords tied between wooden covers. The occasional illustrations were small and usually square".^[6] The term for such a book is pustaka in Sanskrit and pothī in Hindi.^[7] Despite the fact that paper became plentiful in India after about 1400 traditional format change very slowly and usually the loose paper pages were wrapped in cloth and tied in bundles.^[6]^[8]

Painting in North India at the beginning of the 16th century can be divided into three different categories: Jain (Western Indian), Hindu (Early Rajput) and Muslim. First of these was common in Western India (especially Gujarat) and the texts illustrated usually relate to Jainism, with copies of the Kalpa Sūtra and Kalakacharya Katha commissioned most often.^[9] In Western Indian miniatures colors were very limited and applied in flat, clearly bounded areas; profiles, postures and gestures were sharp and angular; and compositions were broken down into small compartments with strongly colored flat backgrounds. These can be taken as general characteristics of indigenous Indian painting styles of the time – distinctive traits of Jain painting include the wiry, vital line drawing, far less robust and energetic colors than in Hindu group and the very repetitive character of the scenes in many manuscripts (see illustration of A King converses). Foreign men are sometimes depicted with the three-quarter profile and formulaic facial features common in Persian painting. However, this visible awareness of other styles did not necessarily lead to the development of new attitudes to pictorial space or compositional format.^[10]

Hindu tradition

Hindu painting on the eve of the Mughal period is best represented by a series of Bhagavata Purana illustrations. In a Krishna defeats Trinavarta (see illustration) among the already mentioned features common with Jain tradition we find also that all figures are in profile and each figure is constructed according to the same formula. We are dealing with types, not individuals. There is no attempt at a three -dimensional space and the artist is indifferent to technical expertise or the subtlety and variety of colors. We are presented with multiple moments or aspects of the event, but the successive episodes are not in visually linear sequence, because there is no attempt to make the moment seem unique, not to separate and distinguish individual forms in an empty space.^[11]

A second important series of illustrations from this period is associated with the erotic poem Caurapañcāśikā. It was discovered earlier than Bhagavata Purana series and "has given its name to this broad stylistic category of pre-Mughal Hindu painting in art-historical writings".^[12] Miniatures from the Caurapañcāśikā follow most of the traits of the Bhagavata Purana illustrations. Space is used metaphorically, not to provide a convincing physical setting, and objects do not seem to obey physical laws. The textiles are almost weightless. Women with impossibly large bosoms, tiny waists, and ample hips perfectly accord with traditional Indian ideals of beauty. Illustrations of Caurapañcāśikā are far more sophisticated in style than those of Bhagavata Purana, but it is the latter that was more influential at the Mughal court.^[13]^[14] Style of this group of works was called recently "Early Rajput Style".^[15]^[16]

Muslim tradition of the sultanate period

Muslims brought with them books on paper, bound along a spine, usually vertical and often encased in leather covers. Islamic rulers were interested in illustrated copies of Persian texts and for them painting was a court art. Books became an emblem of wealth and power, which meant that Muslim patrons demanded opulence of materials, fine craftsmanship, and continual stylistic and narrative novelty, for painting was also a form of personal entertainment. There is no evidence that Jain or Hindu painters had earlier worked exclusively for particular or single patrons, which may not have been economically feasible.^[17] "The Muslim rulers, however, formed kitabkhanas (library workshops) within their palaces, and artists and artisans often worked for specific employers. [...] Thus they painted to please a single person, rather than to reflect the general needs of a community, and this demanded sensitivity and responsiveness to a patron's individual and often highly idiosyncratic taste."^[18]

The great centre of Islamic art in Central India at the end of the 15th century was Malwa Sultanate under the rule of Ghiyath Shah (r. 1469–1500), who commissioned Nimatnama-i-Nasiruddin-Shahi, the most important royal manuscript made in his capital, Mandu. Miniatures of Nimatnama are good examples of Islamic painting in India of this era. The style of Nimatnama illustrations derives in part from contemporary painting in Iran, but one of its important aspects is its provincialism. "Some pages seem simply naive continuations of Iranian style, probably by Indian artists who did not fully understand the Iranian visual conventions they were directed to adopt. Other Nimatnama folios present a far more important combination of Iranian and Indian stylistic traits, and seems to predict the artistic character of early Mughal manuscripts."^[19] Mixture of Jain, Hindu and Persian styles in Nimatnama failed to produce any influential style of its own, but its best illustrations are extremely animated, both visually and narratively, and its characters are among the liveliest figures in Indian painting.^[20]

Two of the most important undated and unprovenanced Sultanate manuscripts of the period (one in CSMVS and another in John Rylands Library) are both of the same text, the Chandayana of Maulana Da'ud. The silhouetted figures with profile heads of the Nimatnama reoccur, but this time always standing on bases in front of a decorative background. Contrary to Iranian tradition every single folio bears a painting and "the density of narrative illustration is such that the text has become superfluous".^[21]

Mughal painting

The first evidence of Mughal artistic patronage emerges from the time of Humayun (1530–1556), who hired Iranian painters such as Abd al-Samad and Mir Sayyid Ali. Their works for the new patron were almost entirely Safavid in character, flat and highly decorative, with similarly sized figures spread throughout the page.^[22]^[23] The beginning of a distinctive Mughal style is associated with the Akbar Hamzanama, a manuscript of the Persian epic Hamzanama which originally consisted of 1400 69 cm × 54 cm paintings on cloth and took 15 or more years to complete (from around 1562 to 1577). Both the physical appearance of the manuscript and its extent are unprecedented in Islamic painting. Such large cycles of paintings, however, and the arrangement of every folio being illustrated are found in earlier Indian manuscripts. The earliest paintings of the Akbar Hamzanama remain Persian in character, with text panels at top and bottom, and painting treated as integral part of the text. The later paintings fill the entire page and they burst with energy and physicality (see illustration of Amr Disguised as Mazmahil the Surgeon Practices Quackery on the Sorcerers of Antali). They have started the integration of foreground and background and concentrate on the major figures of the story.^[24]

The next step in evolution of Mughal art involve influence of European painting, mainly through prints. In Seated Man by Basawan (see illustration) we can see how he use European figural modelling and consequent sense of spatial depth to explore physiognomy, character, texture of clothing and the way person positioned herself in space. When in Persian tradition human figure was an excuse to explore the beauty and independent expressiveness of line, for Mughal artists lines became tools to interpret personality.^[25]

This new Mughal naturalism further developed under the patronage of Jahangir (1605–1627). For Govardhan even figures in the marginal decoration of album (Muraqqa) pages where powerful character studies and "this flesh and blood quality [...] separate Mughal painting from its Iranian roots" because "it is Mughal painting alone that consistently recognizes, acknowledges and investigates the individuality and personal uniqueness of the people it portrays".^[26] An extreme example of Jahangir's unbounded curiosity and predilection to uncompromised naturalism is The Dying Inayat Khan by Balchand (see illustration), which exist only because a dying man, whose appearance seems interesting to the emperor, was made to pose for his portrait.^[27]^[28]

Moreover, Jahangir was interested in particular and recognizable character of the work of his artists. In his Jahangirnama he boasted that "my liking for painting and my practice in judging it have arrived at such a point that when any work is brought before me, either of deceased artists or those of the present day, without the names being told me, I say on the spur of the moment that is the work of such and such a man".^[29]^[30] This led to cultivation of individual artistic styles, and certain painters developed areas of expertise: Mansur as an animal and flower painter, Abu'l-Hasan and Bishandas as imperial portraitists, and Govardhan as a painter of holy men, musicians and eccentrics. Still, the pervasive mood was "the overwhelming dominance of the naturalism demanded by Jahangir".^[31] Even paintings of court scenes, like Nauroz durbar of Jahangir by Abu'l-Hasan (see illustration), were occasions to many individual studies of human characters.^[32]^[33]

Since the mid-16th century, many Mughal painters had been trying to bring painting closer to empirically perceived reality. This Mughal concern for objective distinctiveness and human individuality was a radical shift within both Islamic and Indian traditions, which celebrate rather universal than particular. Equally new was the idea that individual artist's styles should be considered recognizable and important. But already at the end of Jahangir's reign in Mughal art becomes visible another, more traditional trend. In paintings like Jahangir Preferring a Sufi Shaikh to Kings by Bichitr (Freer, F1942.15a) more important than description of rational, natural world becomes symbolic imagery and imperial decorum. This new style dominates during the reign of Shah Jahan (r. 1628–1658) and it culminates in paintings made for his Padshahnama. When for Abu'l-Hasan scene from imperial court was an occasion to delight in the variety and quirks of individual appearances, Bichitr in his The accession of Shah Jahan (see illustration) simply demonstrate the power of state ritual. In fact, the whole manuscript of Padshahnama abounds with such ritual enactments of imperial power and is far less personal than paintings from Jahangirnama.^[34]^[33] Court scenes are rendered static by the lack of contact between the Emperor, depicted as a superior being, always in profile and placed high on his throne platform, and the courtiers below.^[7] There is much less individuation of human figures, who are defined rather by their roles in society, than personal traits, and "it is a clear return to more traditionally Indian ideas of individual's subservience to an ultimate unity, and a major change of direction for the Mughal tradition. [...] it is no longer what separates [sic] men but what unites them that is important."^[35]

The next emperor, Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707), wasn't interested in art, and Mughal painting declined. Formal portraits of the emperor and the nobility remained in demand, but they were created through the increasingly mechanical repetition of long established formulas. Later emperors showed greater interest in the arts than Aurangzeb, but the historical continuity of a distinctively Mughal painting style had ended.^[36] In accordance with Indian tradition, it had begun "to emphasize the universal aspects of the emperors, rather than their unique qualities, and to diminish the importance of the individualistic, innovative styles practiced by specific painters. What has been termed the decline of imperial Mughal art when viewed with the criteria of the European historian is also evidence of the assimilation finally of Mughal painting into the Indian artistic mainstream."^[37]

Remembering that Fawn-Eyed Beauty, Folio from a Caurapañcāśikā. North India, second quarter of the 16th century. Lalbhai Dalpatbhai Museum, N.C. Mehta Collection.
Ghiyas al-Din watches the process of cooking green vegetables, Folio from a Nimatnama-i-Nasiruddin-Shahi (detail). Malwa Sultanate, c. 1500. British Library.
Akbar presenting a painting to his father Humayun by Abd al-Samad, Folio from the Golshan Album. Probably Kabul, 1550–1556. Golestan Palace Library.
Amr Disguised as Mazmahil the Surgeon Practices Quackery on the Sorcerers of Antali, Folio from the Hamzanama. Attributed to Daswanth, Sharavana and Mahesh. Between 1562 and 1577. Brooklyn Museum.
Seated Man by Basawan, c. 1580. Freer Gallery of Art.

Materials, technique, subject matter, organization

After some experimentation in the early 17th century, the Rajput manuscript format clarified into the large pothī, with paintings occupying the full size of the folio and text on the reverse and on intervening folios. In Rajput manuscripts, contrary to Mughal tradition, several connected incidents from a story quite often were illustrated in the same picture in continuous narration. Manuscripts of the 17th century have unillustrated folios separating the pictures. From the early 18th century they are more like picture books, because of the general continuation of the format of pre-Mughal manuscripts, with a full-page picture on one side of every folio and accompanying text on the reverse. The next stage of this development, found particularly in the court studios of the Punjab Hills from the mid-18th century, "is the reduction of the full Sanskrit text to a selection of verses or a summary in Hindi. In these late manuscripts may be seen the final development of the Indian conception of book illustration".^[7] For smaller texts Rajput studios used an upright pothī format, like the unbound leaves of a normal book, but often made of thick card. Texts such as Ragamala were illustrated one verse at a time, usually with a text panel at the top of the page and the painting underneath. Versos in this format are always blank and very rarely are such sets bound.^[7]

Nearly all Indian paintings, including Rajput, use technique described as gouache or opaque watercolor on paper. The first step is to draw a sketch with a charcoal stick with only the rudiments of a composition. The initial drawing is then firmed up in sanguine with a brush, with some details introduced, which is followed by a thin coat of priming in white. This priming was truly thin, for the 'underdrawing' has to show which, in the next step, is firmed up with a black line. Pigments are applied in stages, layer after layer, and after each coat was applied, the painting was placed face down on a flat surface and burnished, which fuses the pigments and imparts upon the painting a measure of the lustre. In next stage, khulai, (literally "opening up") "every outline turns crisp, every detail comes to life".^[38] To this moment rather bland painting start to bloom in all its aspects. Finally comes fine shading, sometimes gold applying, and "moti mahavar (pearl and henna) work, in which the minutest of detailing is painted in: impasto is applied on ornaments and jewellery, 'tooling' is done, lips and fingertips reddened".^[39]

Until the 18th century, painting for Rajput patrons was almost completely confined (with some exceptions) to the illustrations of traditional texts. Most popular subjects were Ragamalas and episodes from the life of Krishna (usually adapted from the Bhagavata Purana). The text of the Ragamala illustrates an element of Hinduism known as bhakti, devotionalism, a system whereby the worshipper exists in a direct relationship with a god. In both literary and visual presentations "this takes the form of romantic, often explicitly sexual, imagery: the worshipper (Lover) longs for union with the divine (the Beloved), and the obliteration of all sense of individuality".^[40] A second facet of the religious background to Rajput painting was Vaishnavism, which had become overwhelmingly influential by the 16th century. Krishna, the favorite incarnation of Vishnu, is a form of the god sent to earth to release men from the power of evil forces. Vaishnavism and devotionalism become so intertwined "that such non-Vaishnavite, bhakti texts as the Ragamala often show Krishna as the male figure"^[40] and in popular imagination he became the archetypal Beloved.^[40]

Among the sacred texts the most often illustrated was the tenth book of the Bhagavata Purana, with Ramayana only slightly less popular. Mahabharata was rarely illustrated. There are also many Rajput illustrations of medieval Hindi and Sanskrit literature, especially such rhetorical texts as the Rasikapriya of the poet Keshav Das, the Rasamanjari by Bhanudatta and the Satasai by Bihari. These works classified heroes (nayakas) and heroines (nayikas) (i.e. Ashta Nayika) and were so well known that series illustrating these subjects often had little or no text.^[7] Mughal influence means also that Rajput court artists were asked "to attempt portraits and records of historical events, instead of illustrating merely familiar texts extolling the gods".^[41]

Work in the Mughal workshops was highly organized, hierarchical and controlled. In Rajput world, there seems to be no "workshops" - in the sense of halls or buildings situated in the capital city, controlled by master (ustad) and attached to the court. There was extensive painting activity, large and cultivated states in which paintings in enormous numbers were made - one can take as examples Mewar in Rajasthan, or Kangra perhaps in the Pahari region - "but nearly everything there appears to have been made within families of painters: «family workshops», so to speak, not necessarily located in the state capital or nearby, and not made up of artists from different extractions or backgrounds".^[42] Artists could be working in their family homes, perhaps in a small town or village, being present at the court from time to time, especially when an occasion demanded it. Here too there were seniors and juniors, authority and obedience, masters, who were often heads of families, but the relationships were like those between members of family. Each family workshop, which could be large and extended, and include even some distant cousins, continuing to plow its own artistic furrow, preserving its own professional secrets, and walls of complete insularity were break down by intermarriage and other social interactions between artist families. Nevertheless, family conventions can survive "far longer than would have been possible within a Mughal-style workshop".^[42]

Rasamandala, c. 1620. Wall-painting in the Badal Mahal, palace of Rao Bhoj, Bundi Palace. Wall painting, although less important form of Rajput painting than manuscript painting, at the beginning of the 17th century was still practised at many Rajput courts. The most exquisite wall paintings of this period survive in the new palace of Rao Bhoj Singh (r. 1585–1607). Ultimately wall painting survive only at a folk level (see for example Shekhawati painting).^[7]^[43]^[44]
An Evening Performance for Maharaja Abhai Singh by Dalchand. Jodhpur, c. 1725. Mehrangarh Museum Trust.
The Emergence of Varaha, the Boar-Incarnation of Vishnu by Manaku of Guler, Folio from a Bhagavata Purana series. On verso, inscribed with nine lines of Sanskrit verse from the Third Book of the Bhagavata Purana in devanagari characters. Guler, c. 1740. Government Museum and Art Gallery, Chandigarh.
The Anxious or Expectant Heroine (Utka Nayika), Folio from a Rasikapriya (The Connoisseur's Delights) of Keshavdas. Uniara, c. 1760 or later. Los Angeles County Museum of Art.
Setubandha – Rama and Lakshmana crossing the bridge to Lanka with the Monkey Army. Attributed to a Master of the First generation after Manaku and Nainsukh. Not every preparatory drawing becomes finished painting. Thousands of these drawings survive to this day and some of them are masterpieces in their own right. Here a master from the Seu-Nainsukh family workshop use an oblique perspective with strong diagonals and the suggestion of receding planes and diminishing figures meandering into the horizon, which impart a wonderful dynamism to the painting. Despite the dense crowding of figures, individual characters are expressed by the diverse gestures to animate them. The monkeys are depicted with remarkably intense expressions. The background is indicated through fluid undulating strokes indicating the hills with gentle slopes on the outskirts of the palace city at Lanka.^[45] Kangra, c. 1770. National Museum, New Delhi.

The growth of local styles in the 17th century

Bundi and Kota

Rajput rulers and princes were frequently in residence at the Mughal court and hold important imperial posts. In this new founded Mughal-Rajput millieu they have direct contact with Mughal artistic taste and standards. Early evidence of those contacts is so-called Chunar Ragamala, dated 1591 (see illustration), which was probably painted for the member of the royal family of Bundi, and then became a model for painters from that state.^[51] Three artists of the Chunar Ragamala introduce themselves as trained in the imperial workshops by Mir Sayyid Ali and Abd al-Samad and whole set is painted in "a rough, but vigorous and inventive adaptation of Mughal style".^[52]

Bundi painting, with its refined line and controlled palette, is a good example of a fact that some styles of Rajasthan derive directly from Mughal painting (the same can be said about Bikaner and Kishangarh school). Other styles (e.g. Mewar and Malwa) "are the inheritors of the pre-Mughal Caurapañcāśikā group idiom and carry its essentially conservative values of flatness, abstraction, bold line and bright colour into the 17th century and beyond. [...] In spite of their apparent differences, the extremes of style in this area should not be considered as polar opposites but as ends of a stylistic continuum".^[7]

It is under the rule of Rao Ratan Singh (r. 1607 - 31) that the evolution of Bundi painting can be documented on the basis of datable miniatures and wall paintings. In 1624 Jahangir seized part of Bundi territory, presenting it to Rao Madho Singh (r. 1625 - 48), younger brother of the Ratan Singh. It was the beginning of the independent Kota State, but from the artistic point of view, painting of Bundi and Kota represent the same closely related idiom.^[7]^[53] Among the artists of Bundi state one great painter, called by today scholars Hada Master (fl c. 1610–60), established himself as a specialist in scenes involving elephants and hunting. At some time he moved to the new kingdom of Kota, when his works became the basis for its later painting. Attributed to him is also the earliest major portrait in what would become the distinctive Kota style, Maharao Jagat Singh of Kota in a Garden (see illustration). In Kota hunting scenes and studies of elephants (like illustrated here Ram Singh I of Kota Hunting Rhinoceros), remained popular into the 19th century. Painting at Bundi "developed instead an ongoing preference for Ragamalas and other literary and religious subjects, as well as more standard scenes of court life".^[54]

Bikaner

Bikaner submitted to Akbar in 1570 and daughters of the royal family were married to the emperor and Prince Salim (future Jahangir). This important and early presence at the Mughal court certainly affected artistic taste of the state's rulers. Bikaner painting has thorough contemporary documentation with inscriptions in Mughal fashion, and records indicate that some 500 artists worked at the court one time or another. The first documented patron is Maharaja Karan Singh (1631–69) and works from his reign draws heavily on contemporary Mughal and Marwar prototypes. Masters of the period included ‛Ali Raza 'of Delhi' (fl c. 1645–65), Natthu (fl c. 1650–95) and most famous of all Bikaner painters, Ruknuddin (fl c. 1650–1700).^[7]^[55] During the reign of Maharaja Anup Singh (r. 1669 - 98) Bikaner painting assumed a distinct character, "best described as a Rajput adaptation of Mughal refinement combined with an intense, Deccani-influenced palette".^[7]

Mewar

Kingdom of Mewar was the last state of the Rajputs which fall under Mughal rule. It wasn't until the 1615 that Mewar accepted Mughal suzerainty, and its long time resistance, motivated by orthodox Hinduism, becomes legendary.^[7]^[56] Artistic conservatism of Mewar art "was itself a reflection of the unchanging social and cultural values of this most traditionalist of Rajput courts".^[7] The first document of Mewar painting and one of the earliest dated Rajput works is so-called Chawand Ragamala of 1605. Painted by Nasiruddin this work shows strong stylistic affiliations with 16th-century manuscripts from Caurapañcāśikā group.^[7]^[56] Ragamala from 1628 by Sahibdin (fl 1628–55) show some influence of Sub-Imperial Mughal style, but his use of vibrant primary colours "reveals him as essentially a follower of the tradition of Nasiruddin, to whom he may have been related".^[7]

Sahibdin was the most important artist at the court of Jagat Singh I (r. 1628–1652), whose reign produced an enormous output of painting. Important manuscripts include Sūryava ṁśaprakāśa (‘Genealogy of the Solar dynasty’, i.e. the Sisodia Rajputs) of 1645, Bhagavata Purana of 1648 and the largest project, monumental Ramayana (see illustration of Ravana, overwhelmed by grief on hearing of his son's death, sends out more forces against Rama), with known volumes dated between 1649 and 1653. This last work show a retreat from earliest Mughal influence to even more traditional Indian style. Another artist who works on Ramayana with Sahibdin was Manohar (which shouldn't be confused with Mughal painter Manohar), known from harsher and less flexible idiom.^[7]^[57] Later manuscript painting at Mewar "seldom ventured beyond imitation or occasionally inspired elaboration of Sahibdin’s achievement".^[7]

Malwa

Malwa school of painting, because of its unpretentious appearance, had been designated 'Primitive Rajasthani'. In one of the earliest known examples of the style, Rasikipriya manuscript dated 1634, "backgrounds are plain blocks of colour; a patch of sky hangs at the top of the work, with a broad white band indicating the horizon line. Figures and a tree are often set against the monochrome ground; in rare instances a richer background is created with tall and decorative trees."^[7] Despite their 'primitive' appearance, the illustrations are indicative of a well-established tradition. Future stylistic evolution of this idiom is displayed in Ramayana manuscript of c. 1640 and Ragamala of c. 1650. In manuscript of Amaru Shataka from 1652 emerge another strain of Malwa painting, which in its delicate faces, gentle movements and subdued colors show Mughal influence. These two strains of Malwa school influenced each other in the succeeding decades. Illustrations of the Rasabeli (c. 1670; N. Mus., New Delhi, MS. 51.63/1–25) painted by Sukhadeva in old Malwa style nevertheless show clear influence of a new idiom. The so-called "Narsyang Shahar Ragamala", dated 1680 (N. Mus., New Delhi) and painted by Madho Das, is one of the most important works in a new style, which at this stage achieved its apogeum. Malwa tradition declined in the 1690s but nevertheless left a mark on painting of the neighbouring regions.^[7]

Marwar

Marwar, with its huge and largely desert territory, covers much of western Rajasthan. The far west of the region, around Jaisalmer, is geographically remote, and painting there maintaining simple compositions and a distinctive angularity largely untouched by Mughal courtly styles. A good example of those qualities is the most important early landmark in Marwar painting, the so-called Pali Ragamala of 1623 (see illustration), painted by Pandit Virji. The paintings are in an archaic horizontal format and represent lively folk style strongly influenced by the tradition of Jain manuscript painting. Later 17th-century manuscripts, predominantly Ragamalas, show an eclectic style, still heavily influenced by Jaina painting, but also with some elements borrowed from Malwa and Mughal schools.^[7]^[58]

Marwar painting in more easterly centres, nearer to Delhi and situated on important trade routes, was open to greater Mughal influence, especially after the rulers of Marwar capitulated to Akbar in the late 16th century. Maharajas Gaj Singh (r. 1620–38) and Jaswant Singh (r. 1638–78) were both eminent figures at the court of Shah Jahan, and under their patronage for the first time appeared Mughal-style portraits and group scenes.^[7]^[59] Some paintings from the reign of Jaswant Singh are evidence of "the style and technique of almost imperial calibre",^[60] but already after 1660 there is visible retreat from the earlier enthusiasm for Mughal taste. Despite all similarities disinterest in any accentuation of human subjects or material textures separates Marwar court paintings from their Mughal prototypes.^[61]

Sirohi

Sirohi seems to have developed a highly recognizable style by about 1680, its exact territorial range is however difficult to ascertain, because the lack of documentation means constant problems in assigning provenance. Sirohi painting is represented by almost identical Ragamalas, which show even less interest in Mughal painting than Mewar, where the most comparable style was practised. One of the artists associated with this broad regional style extending from southern Marwar across Sirohi State into Gujarat is called by today scholars Sirohi Master (fl. c. 1670–1690), because he probably worked for some time at the court of Sirohi.^[62]^[63] Attributed to him Ragamalas show consistent use of strong and strongly contrasting colors and absence of Mughal innovations in the depiction of spatial depth, individualized portraiture, and subtleties of colour. The textiles show none of the Mughal concern for the physical texture of fabric; while a sense of bodily weight is created by emphasizing and thicknenig the contour lines of the body, "following ancient Indian principles seen most notably in the Buddhist frescoes at Ajanta and continued in later manuscripts on palm leaf. [...] This is painting that seems to have evolved from the pre- and non-Mughal styles of Hindu and Jain India".^[64]

Mandi

Pahari painting is a phenomenon a little later than its Rajasthani counterpart. First evidence of painting from the hill region is a manuscript of Devi Mahatmya (Him. State Mus.), almost certainly from the third quarter of the 16th century, which was painted in a style of the Caurapañcāśikā group.^[65] The earliest court paintings from the Pahari state, done in a cohesive style very close to that practiced at the Mughal court between 1590 and 1630, were produced at Mandi, "a populous Hill court geographically occupying a large area in the lower portion of what is now Himachal Pradesh state".^[66] Many of these paintings were perfected by hand of an artist called by Catherine Ann Glynn Early Master at the Court of Mandi (fl c. 1635–1660) or were made in his atelier. The Early Mandi Master, following Mughal influence, to traditional technique added subtle pastels and more naturalistic drawing to achieve more realistic figures and vegetation. The subject matter of Mandi painting was similar to those practised in Rajasthan - illustrations to sacred texts like Bhagavata Purana and Ramayana, Ragamalas and secular court subjects.^[67]

Personality of Raja Sidh Sen (r. 1684–1727), who was a man of enormous stature and a great warrior as well as a devotee of the Shiva, heavily influence later development of the Mandi school, which acquired a highly distinctive character, especially in its portraits. The most important artist of this period, called by today scholars simply Master at the Court of Mandi, in contrast to earlier phase of Mandi painting used rather rough technique, aiming not to recreate a realistic image, but to provide a sense of the portrayed's character (see illustration of Raja Sidh Sen of Mandi - An Informal Portrait).^[7]^[68] Painting of this time is "characterized by bold, sweeping lines. Important figures are given emphasis by strong modelling on faces and other parts of the body. Compositions are simple and colours progressively more controlled. Space is often divided in three horizontal registers: a narrow foreground, monochrome background [...] and a white and blue strip at the top for the sky. The palette consists of muted colours, light blue and chocolate brown".^[7]^[68]

Nurpur and Basohli style

Prior to the 1980s the beginning of Pahari painting was associated with two series of paintings, so-called "Early Rasamanjari" (see illustration of Delighted at the Prospect: the Nayika Mudita) and the "Tantric Devi" series, both datable to c. 1660 - 1670.^[69]^[70] According to Goswamy and Fischer, who attributed them to painter Kripal of Nurpur (fl c. 1660–1690), those illustrations are "two of the most brilliant series of paintings in the entire art of India"^[71] The composition is an assamblege of compartments, each backed by a flat plane of colour. Figures are angular, with large heads and enormous eyes. There is facial modelling, but not allied to effects of light and shade. All of this, together with strong colors, brings comparisons with Caurapañcāśikā style, but the technique is extremely precise and there is none of the roughness of the pre-Mughal Bhagavata Purana. This kind of refined simplicity is responsible for much of the impact of these extremely expressive and vivid paintings.^[7]^[72]

Paintings of Kripal are linked with the so-called Basohli style (term coined by Ajit Ghose in 1929), characterized by "rich, monochromatic backgrounds; a strong, bounding line; exaggerated but superbly controlled drawing of faces and forms; arbitrary but brilliant use of architectural and decorative design; and, for a period of time, the use of beetle wing-cases stuck on to paintings suggesting, through their dazzling effect of colour and lustre, emeralds in jewellery and clothing".^[7] Ananda Coomaraswamy (who designated these works as from Jammu) distinguish this early, more passionate, style from the later, more fluent and naturalistic Kangra style. More generally, Pahari styles, like those of Rajasthan, range from "conservative idioms that preserve traditional values of bright colour, flatness and abstract form (e.g. Basohli and Kulu) to those showing greater Mughal impact in their refinement and cool colour (e.g. Kangra and related styles)".^[7]

Both son and grandson of Kripal, Devidasa (fl c. 1680–1720) and Golu (fl c. 1710 - 1750), painted their own Rasamanjari series, but only Devidasa worked for the ruler of Basohli, namely Raja Kripal Pal (r. 1678–1695). Family of painters descended from Kripal of Nurpur and associated with the beginning of the Basohli style lived in Nurpur and no major family of artists based in Basohli has so far come to the notice of scholars. Indeed, much work grouped under the umbrella term Basohli seems to have been done elsewhere or by artists working only temporary for the ruling house of this state.^[7]^[71]

Lying close to the Punjab plains, Nurpur was less isolated than other Pahari states. The earliest known Nurpur painting, dated c. 1620 (many of which is portraiture), indicates a debt to Mughal works. At the same time a bolder style was adopted for Ragamalas and some religious painting. These two styles coalesced in the early 18th century in the Rasamanjari of Golu. Paintings from the mid-18th century are markedly different, showing the influence of Guler and Jammu. Political deterioration of Nurpur means that from the 3rd quarter of the 18th century no major work was done and distinct Nurpur style ceased to exist.^[7]

Hindola Raga, Folio from the Pali Ragamala by Pandit Virji. Pali, 1623. Sangram Singh collection.
Maharaja Jaswant Singh of Jodhpur listening to music. This work, similarly to Mughal court art, seems to record a specific event in an identifiable setting. But unlike in imperial paintings the entire surface is so lively that we do not see people emphasized by a less important background, which is as intricate and detailed as the human figures. Nor are we aware of differentations of physical texture, and the clothing does not arose in us a sense of muslin or silk, but simply of strong shapes and colors.^[61] Marwar, c. 1660. National Gallery of Victoria.
Shiva, Ever Solicitous of His Other Half by Devidasa of Nurpur, Folio from a Rasamanjari series. Basohli, 1694–1695. San Diego Museum of Art.
Ram Singh I of Kota Hunting Rhinoceros. Hunting scenes and elephant combats became a hallmark of Kota painting^[73] and in the overall effect of tense excitement, as well as in the detailed execution of animals, miniatures such as this one "exemplify the vivacity of design and technical skill achieved by the artists of Kota in the late 17th century".^[7] Kota, c. 1700. Private collection.
Raja Sidh Sen of Mandi - An Informal Portrait. Mandi workshop, attributed to Master at the Court of Mandi, c. 1700. Government Museum and Art Gallery, Chandigarh.

Domination of Rajput painting in the 18th century and later developments

Rajput and Mughal painting

Decline of imperial patronage under Aurangzeb means that at the beginning of the 18th century, Rajput painting was the dominant style of Indian painting. At this point in time, Rajput palaces contained gardens, courtyards, pavilions, and durbar halls in the Mughal fashion, court dress and manners often followed Mughal standards, and many painters used finer pigments to paint subtler perceptions of the natural world in softer colors. "Neither architects nor painters working for Rajput patrons adopted anything more than this superficial appearance of Mughal taste, however. Even when painting portraits - a Mughal inspired subject - the Rajput artist showed no sustained interest in the visual specificity, or individual psychological comprehension, that was so distinctive a Mughal contribution to Indian art. Figures remained types. The regard for human portraiture so remarkable in the works of such Mughal artists as Govardhan or Hashim is found virtually nowhere in Rajput painting".^[75]

The difference of attitude is nowhere more obvious than in the treatment of space. A sense of spatial depth "is basic to the mature phase of Mughal painting. By creating a visual equivalent for empty space, in which solid forms are carefully located, the boundaries and thus the inherent separateness of these forms is affirmed".^[75] Rajput artist sought to show instead the inseparability of forms, and found it more effective to use a less scientific space, even to deny the concept of empty space. In Maharao Jagat Singh of Kota in a Garden (see illustration) or Maharaja Jaswant Singh of Jodhpur listening to music (see illustration), for example, "the background is as aesthetically expressive and assertive as the human figures".^[75]

The individual uniqueness of physical forms is denied also in other ways, because Hindu poetry continually presents forms and shapes as metaphors and symbols evoking other, quite different sensations, of more universal, often religious quality. Therefore Hindu paintings too seek to generalize and, for example, the stance of the ruler in Rajput art describe rather some universal quality, like pride, than a specific physiognomy.^[76]

All of this does not change the fact, that a general trend throughout Rajput painting in this period is a growing interest in spatial realization, even if not achieved through linear perspective, consequent on a movement of artists from Delhi to Rajput courts.^[77] This is linked with reinvigoration of Mughal painting under the patronage of Muhammad Shah (r. 1719–1748), whose "reign was long enough for a distinctive style to flower".^[7] Mughal artists again experimented with light and space and the depiction of buildings in almost perfect perspective is particularly successful.^[78] This minor renaissance ended abruptly in 1739 when Nader Shah invaded India and sacked Delhi. After this "all who could flee from Delhi did so"^[7] and many painters made their way to Rajput courts. Their new approach to space allowed newer subjects such as group portraiture, durbar scenes, recording of court ceremonial and grand hunts to enter the traditional repertoire of the Rajput studios.^[7]^[77]

Mewar

A good example of adaptation of a new technique, only to reinforce traditional sensibilities, are works of a painter from Mewar called by today scholars Stipple Master (fl. c. 1692 - 1715). This anonymous artist got his name from his technique of a "grisaille", a progressively linear "painted drawing" style, often allowing the buffbackground paper to remain uncolored (see illustration of Maharana Amar Singh II with Ladies of the Zenana outside the Picture Hall at Rajnagar). The technique almost certainly originated in the modelling formulas found in European prints, and was previously used in Mughal and Deccan painting.^[79]^[80] In works of Stipple Master, however, lines of shading do not follow the effects of light, but repeat and reinforce the linear definition of the drapery outlines and folds. The same contour shading was used in Ajanta paintings and Rajasthani Ragamalas and "while it gives to forms a sense of weight and mass, it also emphasizes the way those forms fit together with other shapes on the picture surface; it integrates, rather than separates, forms. Once again, the European source was used in a way totally compatible with traditional sensibilities and techniques".^[81]

Prior to that time, Mewar court painters primarily produced manuscripts, and some portraits, and used a flat application of primary colors, with almost no shading, little or no perspective and showed only limited consideration for realistic representation. Stipple Master used his technique to produce accurate and intimate portraits of Amar Singh (r. 1698 - 1710),^[80] as well as some large court scenes and "this innovation of court reportage above all determined the course of the later Udaipur school. Under Sangram Singh II (r. 1710-1734), scenes of darbars, festivals, hunts, temple visits, animal fights and other spectacles became ever larger and more populous and detailed, providing a comprehensive record of the ruler’s public life and the activities of his court".^[7] Mughal models became submerged in the vigorous, sometimes naively archaic compositions of the Mewar artists, who continued to experiment with consecutive narration and multiple viewpoints.^[7] (see illustration of Maharana Jagat Singh II hunting tiger)

These large-format paintings illustrating the doings of the Maharana and his court were continued by Jagat Singh II (r. 1734–1751) and his successors. The best of the outside scenes, in their naturalistic rendition of hills and skies, show landscape conventions taken from the Mughal painting of the Muhammad Shah period, perhaps introduced by the artist Jai Ram (fl c. 1720–51). Jai Ram seems to have been the driving force also behind the series of at least ten upright-format paintings of Rāsalīlā (religious dance dramas) performed before Jagat Singh II.^[7]^[82] In the reign of Ari Singh (r. 1761–1773) even more of these scenes were painted, "although some artists, including the youthful Bagta, were able to rise above the general level and impose some order on the often chaotic earlier style in the rendition of both landscape and architecture".^[83]

After this date painting at Udaipur fell into decline until the early 19th century. Some of the artists took up employment at the minor courts of the nobles, among them Bagta (fl 1756–1811), who spent the remainder of a long career working at Deogarh. Here, in works of Bagta, his son Chokha (fl 1799–1824) and Chokha's son Baijnath (fl c. 1825–40) "a vigorous variant of the Udaipur style flourished for at least three generations".^[7] The Udaipur style was reinvigorated by the return of Chokha to Udaipur and later work of the leading artist of the Sardar Singh (r. 1842–1861) court, Tara (fl 1836–68). Mewar painting, concentrated on court activities of its rulers, existed in a diminished form and with increasing European influence until the abolition of princely powers in 1949 brought an end to royal patronage.^[7]^[83]