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Northern and Southern States period

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Not to be confused with the modern-day Division of Korea.
Northern and Southern States period
Korean name
Hangul
남북국시대
Hanja
南北國時代
Revised RomanizationNambukguksidae
McCune–ReischauerNambukkuksidae
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The Northern and Southern States period (698–926 CE) is the period in ancient Korean history when Unified Silla and Balhae coexisted in the south and north of the peninsula, respectively.[1][2]

Historiography

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The Northern and Southern States period is a historical paradigm born out of advocacy for a Korean identity for Balhae and to incorporate it as an integral part of Korean history.[3][4] The name of the period was coined by Yu Deuk-gong (1749–1807) during the Joseon era. He wrote the Balhaego (Treatise on Balhae) and proposed a new periodization for Korean history in which the Nambukguk sidae ('South–north states period') replaced the Unified Silla period (668–935). The reason for this was that he believed that the loss of Manchuria was the primary reason for Joseon's decline. This line of thinking was continued by I Jonghwi, who wrote the Dongsa (Eastern History).[5]

In the 1960s, the North Korean scholar Pak Se-yong argued that Balhae was "a part of Korean history", "a state founded by people of Koguryŏ", and that its territory was "composed of most of the former territory of Koguryŏ and an expansive, newly acquired portion".[3] Pak made broader claims on the continuity of Balhae with modern Korea, contending that "bloodline and culture are an important component of the bloodlines and cultural traditions of the Korean race".[3] Based on findings of joint Chinese-North Korean archaeological excavations in the 1960s, Chu Yŏnghŏn advocated for a Korean identity for Balhae in South Korea. These efforts led to the incorporation of Balhae into Korean history as part of the "Northern and Southern Dynasties" based on instances in which the Silla court referred to Balhae as the "northern court".[3] According to this narrative, Goryeo was the first unification of Korea, since Balhae co-existed with Unified Silla while occupying former Goguryeo territory north of the Korean peninsula.[6]

Acceptance of this new narrative was not immediate. In 1981 a South Korean scholar called the Northern–Southern Dynasties an "interesting new interpretation",[7] and as late as 1990 there was still no consensus. However, by now the Northern–Southern Dynasties paradigm is widely accepted in South Korean academia. According to Kim Eun Gug, the adoption of this position was necessary to counter Chinese claims on Goguryeo and Balhae as part of Chinese history as well as to provide a model for North and South Korea's unification. Kim openly declared that "We have a national responsibility to develop a response to China’s Northeast Project and its claims that Koguryŏ and Parhae belong to Chinese history."[8]

Unified Silla

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Main article: Unified Silla

After the unification wars, the Tang dynasty established territories in the former Goguryeo, and began to administer and establish communities in Baekje. Silla attacked the Chinese in Baekje and northern Korea in 671.

The Tang dynasty then invaded Silla in 674 but Silla defeated the Tang army in the north. Silla drove the Tang forces out of the peninsula by 676 to achieve unification of most of the Three Kingdoms.

Unified Silla was a golden age of art and culture,[9][10][11][12] and Buddhism became a large part of Silla culture. Buddhist monasteries such as the Bulguksa are examples of advanced Korean architecture and Buddhist influence. State-sponsored art and architecture from this period include Hwangnyongsa Temple, Bunhwangsa Temple, and Seokguram Grotto, a World Heritage Site.

Unified Silla carried on the maritime prowess of Baekje, which acted like the Phoenicia of medieval East Asia,[13] and during the 8th and 9th centuries dominated the seas of East Asia and the trade between China, Korea and Japan, most notably during the time of Jang Bogo; in addition, Silla people made overseas communities in China on the Shandong Peninsula and the mouth of the Yangtze River.[14][15][16][17] Unified Silla was a prosperous and wealthy country,[18] and its metropolitan capital of Gyeongju[19] was the fourth largest city in the world.[20][21][22][23]

Buddhism flourished during this time, and many Korean Buddhists gained great fame among Chinese Buddhists[24] and contributed to Chinese Buddhism,[25] including: Woncheuk, Wonhyo, Uisang, Musang,[26][27][28][29] and Kim Gyo-gak, a Silla prince whose influence made Mount Jiuhua one of the Four Sacred Mountains of Chinese Buddhism.[30][31][32][33][34]

Silla began to experience political troubles in the late 9th century. This severely weakened Silla and soon thereafter, descendants of the former Baekje established Later Baekje. In the north, rebels revived Goguryeo, beginning the Later Three Kingdoms period.

Unified Silla lasted for 267 years until, under King Gyeongsun, it was annexed by Goryeo in 935.

Balhae

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Main article: Balhae
Balhae and Silla in 830

Balhae was founded after Goguryeo had fallen. Its name was another transcribed version of Mohe, a Tungus Tribe speaking a language like Manchurian and Sibe. It was founded in the northern part of former lands of Goguryeo by Dae Joyeong, a former Goguryeo general[35][36] or chief of Sumo Mohe,[37][38][39] after defeating the military of central government of Tang dynasty at the Battle of Tianmenling. Balhae controlled the northern areas of the Korean Peninsula, much of Manchuria, and expanded into present-day Russian Maritime Province.

In a time of relative peace and stability in the region, Balhae flourished in culture, especially during the long reign of the third King Mun (r. 737–793) and King Seon. At that time, Balhae was a culturally advanced country, so that even China referred to this kingdom as "a prosperous country of the East".[40] However, Balhae was severely weakened by the 10th century, and the Khitan Liao dynasty conquered Balhae in 926. Goryeo absorbed some of Balhae's territory and received Balhae refugees, including the crown prince and the royal family, but compiled no known histories of Balhae.

Language

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Due to the lack of linguistic evidence, it is difficult to make a definitive conclusion for the linguistic relation between the Balhae and Silla languages.

One terminology that people of Balhae used to describe "a king" is Gadokbu (transcribed as 可毒夫).

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Encyclopedia, Naver.
  2. ^ Korean Britannica Encyclopedia, Daum.
  3. ^ a b c d Sloane 2014, p. 5.
  4. ^ Ch'oe 1980, p. 24.
  5. ^ Xu 2016, p. 71.
  6. ^ Ch'oe 1980, pp. 24–25.
  7. ^ Sloane 2014, p. 6.
  8. ^ Sloane 2014, pp. 4–6.
  9. ^ DuBois, Jill (2005). Korea. Marshall Cavendish. p. 22. ISBN 9780761417866. Retrieved 29 July 2016. golden age of art and culture.
  10. ^ Randel, Don Michael (28 November 2003). The Harvard Dictionary of Music. Harvard University Press. p. 273. ISBN 9780674011632. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
  11. ^ Hopfner, Jonathan (10 September 2013). Moon Living Abroad in South Korea. Avalon Travel. p. 21. ISBN 9781612386324. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
  12. ^ Kim, Djun Kil (30 January 2005). The History of Korea. ABC-CLIO. p. 47. ISBN 9780313038532. Retrieved 30 September 2016.
  13. ^ Kitagawa, Joseph (5 September 2013). The Religious Traditions of Asia: Religion, History, and Culture. Routledge. p. 348. ISBN 9781136875908. Retrieved 21 July 2016.
  14. ^ Gernet, Jacques (1996). A History of Chinese Civilization. Cambridge University Press. p. 291. ISBN 9780521497817. Retrieved 21 July 2016. Korea held a dominant position in the north-eastern seas.
  15. ^ Reischauer, Edwin Oldfather (1955). Ennins Travels in Tang China. John Wiley & Sons Canada, Limited. pp. 276–283. ISBN 9780471070535. Retrieved 21 July 2016. "From what Ennin tells us, it seems that commerce between East China, Korea and Japan was, for the most part, in the hands of men from Silla. Here in the relatively dangerous waters on the eastern fringes of the world, they performed the same functions as did the traders of the placid Mediterranean on the western fringes. This is a historical fact of considerable significance but one which has received virtually no attention in the standard historical compilations of that period or in the modern books based on these sources. . . . While there were limits to the influence of the Koreans along the eastern coast of China, there can be no doubt of their dominance over the waters off these shores. . . . The days of Korean maritime dominance in the Far East actually were numbered, but in Ennin's time the men of Silla were still the masters of the seas in their part of the world."
  16. ^ Kim, Djun Kil (30 May 2014). The History of Korea, 2nd Edition. ABC-CLIO. p. 3. ISBN 9781610695824. Retrieved 21 July 2016.
  17. ^ Seth, Michael J. (2006). A Concise History of Korea: From the Neolithic Period Through the Nineteenth Century. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 65. ISBN 9780742540057. Retrieved 21 July 2016.
  18. ^ MacGregor, Neil (6 October 2011). A History of the World in 100 Objects. Penguin UK. ISBN 9780141966830. Retrieved 30 September 2016.
  19. ^ Chŏng, Yang-mo; Smith, Judith G.; Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York, N.Y.) (1998). Arts of Korea. Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 230. ISBN 9780870998508. Retrieved 30 September 2016.
  20. ^ International, Rotary (February 1996). The Rotarian. Rotary International. p. 28. Retrieved 30 September 2016.
  21. ^ Ross, Alan (17 January 2013). After Pusan. Faber & Faber. ISBN 9780571299355. Retrieved 30 September 2016.
  22. ^ Mason, David A. "Gyeongju, Korea's treasure house". Korea.net. Korean Culture and Information Service. Retrieved 30 September 2016.
  23. ^ Adams, Edward Ben (1986). Koreaʾs pottery heritage. Seoul International Pub. House. p. 53. Retrieved 30 September 2016.
  24. ^ Mun, Chanju; Green, Ronald S. (2006). Buddhist Exploration of Peace and Justice. Blue Pine Books. p. 147. ISBN 9780977755301. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
  25. ^ McIntire, Suzanne; Burns, William E. (25 June 2010). Speeches in World History. Infobase Publishing. p. 87. ISBN 9781438126807. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
  26. ^ Buswell, Robert E. Jr.; Lopez, Donald S. Jr. (24 November 2013). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press. p. 187. ISBN 9781400848058. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
  27. ^ Poceski, Mario (13 April 2007). Ordinary Mind as the Way: The Hongzhou School and the Growth of Chan Buddhism. Oxford University Press. p. 24. ISBN 9780198043201. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
  28. ^ Wu, Jiang; Chia, Lucille (15 December 2015). Spreading Buddha's Word in East Asia: The Formation and Transformation of the Chinese Buddhist Canon. Columbia University Press. p. 155. ISBN 9780231540193. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
  29. ^ Wright, Dale S. (25 March 2004). The Zen Canon: Understanding the Classic Texts. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780199882182. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
  30. ^ Su-il, Jeong (2016-07-18). The Silk Road Encyclopedia. Seoul Selection. ISBN 9781624120763. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
  31. ^ Nikaido, Yoshihiro (2015-10-28). Asian Folk Religion and Cultural Interaction. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. p. 137. ISBN 9783847004851. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
  32. ^ Leffman, David; Lewis, Simon; Atiyah, Jeremy (2003). China. Rough Guides. p. 519. ISBN 9781843530190. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
  33. ^ Leffman, David (2014-06-02). The Rough Guide to China. Penguin. ISBN 9780241010372. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
  34. ^ DK Eyewitness Travel Guide: China. Penguin. 2016-06-21. p. 240. ISBN 9781465455673. Retrieved 29 July 2016.
  35. ^ Old records of Silla 新羅古記(Silla gogi): ... 高麗舊將祚榮
  36. ^ Rhymed Chronicles of Sovereigns 帝王韻紀(Jewang ungi): ... 前麗舊將大祚榮
  37. ^ Solitary Cloud 孤雲集(Gounjib): ... 渤海之源流也句驪未滅之時本爲疣贅部落靺羯之屬寔繁有徒是名栗末小蕃甞逐句驪, 內徙其首領乞四羽及大祚榮等至武后臨朝之際自營州作孼而逃輒據荒丘始稱振國時有句驪遺燼勿吉雜流梟音則嘯聚白山鴟義則喧張黑姶與契丹濟惡旋於突厥通謀萬里耨苗累拒渡遼之轍十年食葚晚陳降漢之旗.
  38. ^ Solitary Cloud 孤雲集(Gounjip): ... 其酋長大祚榮, 始受臣藩第五品大阿餐之秩
  39. ^ Comprehensive Institutions 通典(Tongdian): ... 渤海夲栗末靺鞨至其酋祚榮立國自號震旦, 先天中 玄宗王子始去靺鞨號專稱渤海
  40. ^ Shin 2014, pp. 64–65.

Bibliography

[edit]
  • Ch'oe, Yŏng-ho (1980), "An Outline History of Korean Historiography", Korean Studies, 4: 1–27, JSTOR 23717670
  • Shin, Michael D., ed. (2014), Korean History in Maps, Cambridge University Press, pp. 64–65, ISBN 978-1-107-09846-6
  • Sloane, Jesse D. (2014), Parhae in Historiography and Archaeology: International Debate and Prospects for Resolution
  • Xu, Stella (2016), Reconstructing Ancient Korean History: The Formation of Korean-ness in the Shadow of History, Lexington Books
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