Jump to content

Neurodiversity

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Neurotypical)

Autistic art depicting the natural diversity of human minds
Part of a series on
Discrimination
Forms
Attributes
Social
Religious
Ethnic/national
Manifestations
Policies
Countermeasures
Related topics

The neurodiversity paradigm is a framework for understanding human brain function that recognizes the diversity within sensory processing, motor abilities, social comfort, cognition, and focus as neurobiological differences. This diversity falls on a spectrum of neurocognitive differences.[1] The neurodiversity paradigm argues that diversity in human cognition is normal and that some conditions generally classified as disorders, such as autism, are differences and disabilities that are not necessarily pathological. Neurotypical individuals are those who fall within the average range of functioning and thinking.

The neurodiversity movement started in the late 1980s and early 1990s with the start of Autism Network International. Much of the correspondence that led to the formation of the movement happened over autism conferences, namely the autistic-led autreat, penpal lists, and Usenet. The framework grew out of the disability rights movement and builds on the social model of disability, arguing that disability partly arises from societal barriers, rather than attributing disability purely to inherent deficits.[2] It instead situates human cognitive variation in the context of biodiversity and the politics of minority groups.[3][4][5] Some neurodiversity advocates and researchers argue that the neurodiversity paradigm is the middle ground between a strong medical model and a strong social model.[6][7][8]

Neurodivergent individuals face unique challenges in education and the workplace. The efficacy of accessibility and support programs in career development and higher education depends on the individual.[9][10] Social media has introduced a platform where neurodiversity awareness and support has emerged, further promoting the neurodiversity movement.

The neurodiversity paradigm has been controversial among disability advocates, partly due to misunderstandings of neurodiversity paradigm, with opponents arguing it risks downplaying the suffering associated with some disabilities, and that it calls for the acceptance of things some would wish to be treated.[11][12][13][14][15]

History

[edit]

The word neurodiversity first appeared in publication in 1998, in an article by American journalist Harvey Blume,[16] as a portmanteau of the words neurological diversity, which had been used as early as 1996 in online spaces such as InLv to describe the growing concept of a natural diversity in humanity's neurological expression.[2] The same year, it was published in Judy Singer's sociology honors thesis,[17][18] drawing on discussions on the independent living mailing list that included Blume.[19] Singer has described herself as "likely somewhere on the autistic spectrum".[17]

Blume was an early advocate who predicted the role the Internet would play in fostering the international neurodiversity movement.[20] In a New York Times piece on June 30, 1997, Blume described the foundation of neurodiversity using the term neurological pluralism.[21] Some authors[22][23][24] also credit the earlier work of autistic advocate Jim Sinclair in laying the foundation for the movement. Sinclair's 1993 speech "Don't Mourn For Us" emphasized autism as a way of being, claiming "it is not possible to separate the person from the autism."[25]

The Neurodiversity Movement grew largely from online interaction. The internet's design lent well to the needs of many autistic people.[26] People socialized over listservs and IRCs. Some of the websites used for organizing in the Neurodiversity Movement's early days include sites like Autistics.Org[27][28] and Autistic People Against Neuroleptic Abuse.[29][30] Core principles were developed from there. Principles such as advocating for the rights and autonomy of all people with brain disabilities with a focus on autism. The main conflicts from the beginning were about who the real experts on autism are, what causes autism, what treatments are appropriate, and who gets to call themselves autistic.[31] During the 2000s, people started blogs such as Mel Baggs' Ballastexistenz[32] and Kevin Leitch's Left Brain Right Brain.[33] Eventually, Autistic Self Advocacy Network (ASAN) was started by Ari Ne'eman and Scott Robertson to further align the Neurodiversity Movement with the greater disability rights movement. ASAN led the Ransom Notes Campaign[34][35] to successfully remove stigmatizing disability ads posted by the NYU Child Study Center. This was a massive turning point for the Neurodiversity Movement.[36]

From there, the Neurodiversity Movement continued to grow with the formation of more organizations in the early 2010s such as Autistic Women & Nonbinary Network[37] and The Thinking Person's Guide to Autism.[38] More autistic people were appointed to federal advisory boards like Interagency Autism Coordinating Committee and National Council on Disability. There were various campaigns like the ongoing #StopTheShock related to the use of aversive treatment at Judge Rotenberg Center and various protests against Autism Speaks. Various flashblogs[39][40] popped up during the 2010s to support campaigns. Annual traditions were formed such as Disability Day of Mourning[41] and Autistics Speaking Day.[42]

Damian Milton notes that, in 2014, Nick Walker attempted to define neurodiversity, the neurodiversity movement, and the neurodiversity paradigm. Walker tied neurodiversity to the idea that "all brains are to a degree unique". She also defined the movement as a rights movement, and the paradigm as a broader discussion of diversity, cultural constructions and social dynamics.[43][44]

In recent years, the concept of neurodiversity has gained traction among members of the scientific community,[45][46] who have argued that autism researchers have sometimes been too ready to interpret differences as deficits.[47][48] It has also been suggested that there are both ethical and practical risks in attempting to reduce or suppress autistic traits through interventions, as some recent studies have indicated that higher levels of masking are generally associated with poorer mental health outcomes among autistic people, including suicidality.[49][50][51][52][53] Researchers have found that psychoeducation based on the medical model is associated with higher stigma.[54] Similarly, some researchers and advocates also argue that a medicalizing approach can contribute to stigma and ableism,[55][56] and that the persistent focus on biological research in autism is at odds with the priorities of those in the autism community.[57][58][59]

Autistic self-advocate and researcher Ari Ne'eman has suggested a trait-based approach, where elements of the medical (or pathology) model can be applied in treating certain traits, behaviors, or conditions that are intrinsically harmful (e.g. self-injury behaviors, epilepsy, or other co-occurring health conditions), while neurodiversity approaches can be applied to non-harmful or adaptive autistic traits (e.g. stimming, intense interests) of the same individual.[60][61] In recent years, both new intervention strategies and neurodiversity-based reforms of existing intervention strategies have been developed.[62][49]

Neurodivergent

[edit]

Following the rise of the autism rights movement in the 1990s, many autistic advocates, including Kassiane Asasumasu, recognized that a wide variety of people experienced the world in ways similar to autistic people, despite not being autistic. As a result, Asasumasu coined the related terms neurodivergent and neurodivergence circa 2000.[44][63]

According to Asasumasu, neurodivergent/neurodivergence refers to those "whose neurocognitive functioning diverges from dominant societal norms in multiple ways".[44] She intended for these terms to apply to a broad variety of people,[44][64][65] not just people with neurodevelopmental disorders, such as autism, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and dyslexia. She further emphasized that it should not be used to exclude people but rather to include them.[66] This term provided activists a way to advocate increased rights and accessibility for non-autistic people who do not have typical neurocognitive functioning.[67]

Neurodivergent has been used in multiple ways since Asasumasu's conception, especially to refer specifically to individuals diagnosed with neurodevelopmental disorders.[44] It is also used as an umbrella term used to describe people with atypical mental and behavioral traits, such as mood,[68] anxiety, dissociative, psychotic, personality,[69] and eating disorders.[70] Under the neurodiversity framework, these conditions are often referred to as "neurodivergencies", in an effort to move away from the medical model of disability (sometimes referred to in the neurodiversity community as the "pathology paradigm"[71]).

Alternative terms used for neurodiversity

[edit]

Advocates within the neurodiversity movements have also coined other alternative neologism's that people use to refer to themselves with the goal to remove the stigma of the medicalized view of neurodiversity. These terms, such as neurospicy are often used instead of neurodivergent by people when referring to themself.[72][73]

Neurotypical or neuroconforming

[edit]

Neurotypical (an abbreviation of neurologically typical, sometimes NT) is a neologism widely used in the neurodiversity movement as a label for anyone who has a neurotype that fits into the norm of thinking patterns. Thus, the term "neurotypical" includes anyone who is not autistic, and does not have ADHD, dyslexia, anxiety, or any other condition that would be considered neurodivergent.[74][75][76] The term has been adopted by both the neurodiversity movement and some members of the scientific community.[77][78]

In contrast to some of the shortcomings of terms like 'neurotypical' (such as its underlying assumption that neurodivergent experiences are an anomaly, i.e. not typical), a growing group of advocates in the neurodivergent movement prefer other terms such as "neuroconforming".[79]

Term

[edit]

Modern neuroscientists such as writer Mo Costandi view the neurodiversity movement and terms like "neurotypical" to be pseudoscientific, having no use in neuroscience.[80][81]

Early definitions described neurotypicals as individuals who do not have autism and do not meet the criteria to be diagnosed with autism.[82][83] Early uses of NT were often satirical, as in the Institute for the Study of the Neurologically Typical,[84][85] but it has been adopted by the neurodiversity movement too, and is now used in a serious manner.[86]

People with any form of neurocognitive or mental disorder, whether congenital or acquired, have also sometimes been excluded from the neurotypical label, particularly in academic studies for specific disorders that use neurotypical control groups.[87] In this sense, the term is now contrasted to neurodivergent.

Some people prefer the term allistic,[88] which unambiguously means "not autistic".[89][failed verification]

The National Autistic Society of the United Kingdom describes the word as "mainly used by autistic people so may not be applicable in, for example, the popular press".[90]

Double empathy problem theory

[edit]
Main article: Double empathy problem
Both autistic and non-autistic people can find it difficult to empathize with each other. The fact that both people in the interaction have trouble with understanding and empathy is why the theory is called the "double empathy problem".[91]

The theory of the double empathy problem argues that autistic people do not lack empathy as often supposed by people who see autism as pathological. Rather, the experiences of autistic and non-autistic people are so different that it is hard for one to understand how the other thinks; for example, non-autistic people may not understand when an autistic person is overwhelmed.[92]

It was originally conceived in 2012 by autistic scholar Damian Milton.[93] One study comparing the conversations and socialization of autistic groups, non-autistic groups, and mixed groups found that autistic people were more able to build rapport with other autistic people than with non-autistic people, and at a level similar to the purely non-autistic group.[94]

The double empathy problem theory implies there is no simple fix that can help each group better empathize with each other. Moreover, attempting to "treat" an autistic person by teaching them to empathize with non-autistic people could generate mental health issues and feelings of inferiority and self-blame. The same risks do not apply when seeking to teach non-autistic people, because their allistic neurology is not stigmatized. The advantage of the theory is reducing pathologization of autistic people by identifying that everyone struggles to empathize with different neurotypes. It can also help neurotypical individuals to better understand how neurodivergent people think and empathize and to recognize their own limitations in empathizing with autistic people.[95] Jaswal and Akhtar (2019) highlight the difference between being socially uninterested and appearing socially uninterested, and challenge preconceived notions of a lack of social motivation. For example, testimonies from autistic individuals report that avoiding eye contact serves an important function of helping them to concentrate during conversation, and should not be interpreted as expressing social disinterest.[96]

Within disability rights movements

[edit]
Further information: Autism rights movement
Neurodiversity paradigm
Philosophy
Organizations
Events
Issues
People
Films
Criticism

The neurodiversity paradigm was developed and embraced first by autistic people,[97][98] but has been applied to other conditions such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), developmental speech disorders, dyslexia, dysgraphia, dyspraxia,[99] dyscalculia, dysnomia, intellectual disability, obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), Tourette syndrome,[100] and sometimes mental illnesses such as schizophrenia,[8][101] bipolar disorder,[102] schizoaffective disorder, and, somewhat more controversially, personality disorders such as antisocial personality disorder.[103] Neurodiversity advocates[which?] who support those with autism, ADHD, dyslexia, and other neurodevelopmental disorders do not agree in framing medical interventions as a way to "cure" or "fix" these individuals. Rather, they promote support systems such as inclusion-focused services, accommodations, communication and assistive technologies, occupational training, and independent living support.[62][104][105][106] The intention is for individuals to receive support that honors human diversity and feel that they are able to freely express themselves. Other forms of treatment may cause them to feel as though they are being coerced or forced to adapt to social norms, or to conform to a behavioral standard or clinical ideal.[107][108]

Proponents of neurodiversity strive to reconceptualize autism and related conditions in society by acknowledging that neurodiversity does not require a cure, changing the language from the current "condition, disease, disorder, or illness"-based nomenclature, "broadening the understanding of healthy or independent living", acknowledging new types of autonomy, and giving neurodivergent individuals more control over their treatment, including the type, timing, and whether there should be treatment at all.[24][8]

Activists such as Jennifer White-Johnson have helped bring attention to the neurodiversity movement, by creating symbols of protest and recognition, including a combination of the black power fist and infinity symbol.[109]

A 2009 study[110] separated 27 students with conditions including autism, dyslexia, developmental coordination disorder, ADHD, and having suffered a stroke into two categories of self-view: "A 'difference' view—where neurodiversity was seen as a difference incorporating a set of strengths and weaknesses, or a 'medical/deficit' view—where neurodiversity was seen as a disadvantageous medical condition". They found that, although all of the students reported uniformly difficult schooling careers involving exclusion, abuse, and bullying, those who viewed themselves from the "difference" view (41% of the study cohort) "indicated higher academic self-esteem and confidence in their abilities and many (73%) expressed considerable career ambitions with positive and clear goals".[110] Many of these students reported gaining this view of themselves through contact with neurodiversity advocates in online support groups.[110]

A 2013 online survey which aimed to assess conceptions of autism and neurodiversity suggested that conception of autism as a difference, and not a deficit, is developmentally beneficial and "transcend[s] a false dichotomy between celebrating differences and ameliorating deficit".[111]

Neurodiversity advocate John Elder Robison argues that the disabilities and strengths conferred by neurological differences may be mutually inseparable. "When 99 neurologically identical people fail to solve a problem, it's often the 1% fellow who's different who holds the key. Yet that person may be disabled or disadvantaged most or all of the time. To neurodiversity proponents, people are disabled because they are at the edges of the bell curve, not because they are sick or broken."[112]

Higher education

[edit]

There are several models that are used to understand disability within the spectrum of neurodiversity. There is the medical model of disability that views people as needing to be treated or cured.[113] Another model is the social model of disability, which puts emphasis on the way that society treats people with disabilities.[114] Through the social model of disability, the experiences of neurodivergent students in higher education is partially influenced by the reactions and attitudes of other students and the institution itself.[9]

Experiences of neurodivergent students

[edit]

The emotional experiences of neurodivergent students in higher education depend on a combination of factors, including the type of disability, the level of impairment, and the student's access to resources and accommodations.[115] A common difficulty for neurodivergent students is maintaining social relationships, which can give rise to loneliness, anxiety, and depression.[115] There is also the added stress and difficulty of transitioning into higher education, as well as the responsibilities and task management required in college.[115] Many neurodivergent students may find that they need added support.[115] As for academics, neurodivergent students may experience difficulties in learning, executive function, managing peer relationships in the classroom or in group work, and other impairments that can affect academic performance and success in higher education.[115] However, neurodivergent students may find that their differences are a strength and an integral part of their new social roles as adults.[115]

Higher education institutions

[edit]

The typical curriculum and format of higher education may pose as a challenge for neurodivergent students, and a lack of support and flexibility from staff may further complicate the university experience.[116] Thus, reasonable adjustments are available to students who disclose their disabilities.[116] However, these adjustments and/or accommodations may put an emphasis on academics, and less on the various challenges of higher education on neurodivergent students.[116] For instance, neurodivergent students in higher education also report a need for non-academic supports, such as social mentorships and resources for strength-based interventions in order to further assist neurodivergent students in the social aspects of college life.[117] Similarly, career preparation that is specifically targeted for neurodivergent students is lacking. There are several programs, such as supported employment, that exist to help assist neurodivergent individuals in finding and obtaining a job. However, many of these programs do not exist in schools. This can make it difficult for neurodivergent students to find a career path that they feel is attainable for them.[113] Another consideration is the implementation of a universal design approach (UDL) when building learning spaces or communal areas that considers the needs of neurodivergent students. A UDL design incorporates a design that accommodates the needs of all students, including the neurodivergent population.[10]

According to an article published in 2023, universities and post-secondary establishments would show more tolerance towards neurodivergent people. A tolerant environment can increase autonomy, leading to kindness and understanding among students.[118] Higher education institutions offer counseling and support services to students. However, neurodivergent students face particular challenges that impair their ability to receive consistent support and care. Additionally, counseling and support services face a lack of funding, personnel, and specialists that can adequately support neurodivergent students. Overall, these services work for some students and not for others.[119]

Nachman and colleagues reviewed several articles published by two-year community colleges and found some discrepancies in the way that they perceived and categorized "disabled" students and "non-disabled" students. They found that all of the articles were attempting to normalize disability. Many of them put distinct separation between typical and atypical learners as well as their potential academic achievement. Nachman also found that many of the articles showed a lack of autonomy for neurodivergent students. They had little power in regard to academic choices and classroom management.[120]

In the workplace

[edit]

Neurodivergent individuals are subjected to bias when applying and interviewing for job positions.[121] Specifically, neurodivergent individuals can have their social engagement style compared to neurotypical individuals, which can affect their ability to obtain a job position.[121] Stigmas against neurodivergence (especially against autistic individuals) and cognition challenges in social situations can hinder an individual's ability to perform well in a traditional job interview.[122] Organizations such as Specialisterne aim to use neurodivergent employees' particular skills – such as pattern recognition, detection of deviations, attention to detail, analytical thinking, and extended focus – in the workforce, as well as educate companies on supporting neurodivergent employees.[123][124][125]

In a systematic review that considered developmental dyslexia as "an expression of neurodiversity", it was suggested that neurodiversity is not yet an established concept in the workplace, and therefore, support from social relationships and work accommodations is minimal.[126] Furthermore, another systematic review that focused on pharmacological and combined pharmacological/psychosocial interventions for adults with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder found that there were few workplace-based intervention studies, and suggested that additional research needs to be conducted to figure out how to best support neurodivergent employees in the workplace.[127]

A study conducted during the COVID-19 pandemic suggested that neurodivergent individuals would benefit from remote work as it allowed them to engage in their interests, but that social engagement is still necessary for productivity and performance.[128] Another study supported these findings and stressed the need for redesigned work and social conditions to be more inclusive for individuals with autism.[129]

In social media

[edit]

The increase of representation of the neurodiversity movement in the media came about with changes in the technology of the media platforms themselves.[62] The recent addition of text-based options on various social media sites allow disabled users to communicate, enjoy, and share at a more accessible rate.[62] Social media has a two-fold benefit to the neurodivergent community: it can help spread awareness and pioneer the neurodiversity movement, and it can also allow members of the communities themselves to connect.[130][131]

Social media as a platform

[edit]

Media platforms allow the connection of individuals of similar backgrounds to find a community of support with one another.[130] Online networking and connections allows for the user to decide their level of comfort with interactions, and allow them to retain control of a relationship with another user. For the neurodivergent community, the use of social media to create relationships has proven a useful tool for those with difficulty in social situations.[132] By connecting neurodivergent users, media platforms provide "safe spaces" that are helpful in forming relationships.[132] Some media developers have created platforms such as Blossom, which are designed specifically to connect neurodivergent users and families.[133]

Social media as a driving force

[edit]

Social media also allows users to spread awareness about the neurodiversity movement.[134] Increasing awareness about disorders has been shown to increase the amount of factual information spread.[134] The spread of information through social media exposure can assist the neurodiversity movement in educating the public about understanding disabilities such as autism and sifting out misinformation.[131] By sharing neurodivergent experiences from a first hand perspective, social media can educate the public and destigmatize certain disorders, but negative portrayals of neurodivergence can have an obstructive impact on members of the community.[134][135]

Challenges within media

[edit]

Although representation of the neurodivergent community has grown with the help of social media platforms, those users are often criticized and misunderstood.[136] Social media has not entirely removed the social barriers that restrict inclusion of neurodivergent people. Some have reported needing to conform to the mainstream view of their disability to be seen as "authentic" users.[136] Doing so has indirectly made it more difficult for neurodivergent users to grow platforms.[136][137] Non-disabled users evaluating the authenticity of neurodivergent users based on stereotypes shows that the neurodiversity movement has not reached its goal of inclusion.[136]

Clinical setting

[edit]

Medicine and healthcare

[edit]

Medical and healthcare professionals have begun to acknowledge neurodivergence among employees.[138][139] Specifically, more groups are being created that are centered around advocacy and peer support among medical and healthcare professionals who associate themselves with neurodiversity, such as the Autistic Doctors International created by Dr. Mary Doherty.[138] Another approach is the implementation of a 5-minute video summary (5MVS) for medical learners and physicians who have attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD).[139] It consists of a 5-minute recorded video summary in which an engaging speaker presents the relevant information from a scientific article about ADHD using a brief PowerPoint presentation shared using videoconferencing technology. The researchers state that providing this educational tool for helping medical learners and physicians with ADHD acquire relevant information from scientific articles could help in addressing their inattention, impulsivity and/or hyperactivity, and improve their development of critical appraisal skills when working in healthcare.[139]

Similarly, healthcare systems may benefit from hiring neurodivergent individuals to gain a unique perspective when caring for patients.[140] Some healthcare staff agree that inviting neurodivergent individuals to join patient advisory groups or hiring them as staff are essential steps to acceptance and integration in the workforce. Neurodivergent people's unique strengths can be vital to health system innovation and improvement efforts.[140] One example of the push toward this is the Stanford Neurodiversity Project, in which one of their goals is to discover the strengths of neurodivergent individuals and make use of their talents to increase innovation and productivity of their society, such as working in the field of healthcare and medicine.[141]

Neurodiversity has also recently been investigated as a new way of working within neurodevelopmental clinics in the UK.[142] A team of researchers in Portsmouth, England, have created an approach in aiding neurodivergent individuals known as PANDA, or the Portsmouth Alliance Neurodiversity Approach. This approach may help medical and healthcare professionals facilitate understanding, communication and early support for children who may identify as being neurodivergent.[142]

Therapy

[edit]

Neurodiversity and the role it plays in therapeutic settings has been a central focal point in recent years. Many therapists and mental health professionals have pushed for more inclusive psychotherapeutic frameworks appropriate for neurodivergent individuals.[143][144] One example is neurodivergence-informed therapy, which reframes dysfunction as interconnectedness among society rather than strictly individual, advocating for acceptance and pride in the neurodiversity community, and the push for therapists to pursue humility regarding the knowledge and education associated with individuals who identify as neurodivergent.[143] Similarly, neurodiversity affirming therapy supports neurodivergent differences, rather than viewing them as something that should be "cured", and to offer ways to support the individual with difficult areas, while still appreciating their needs and strengths.[144]

Therapeutic programs and interventions are also being investigated for the neurodivergent community.[145][146] Self-determination programs to help neurodivergent individuals achieve goals in their life has been founded to be successful, with neurodivergent participants finding it to be "appropriate, acceptable, and feasible".[145] Various approaches (e.g., eye-tracking, longitudinal data, computational modeling) in understanding perceptual decision-making in neurodivergent individuals are also being studied and the implications it may have in the therapeutic environment in working with the neurodivergent population.[146]

Another form of therapeutic intervention in that has been investigated in neurodivergent individuals is the use of Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Interventions (NDBIs).[147] NDBIs have been shown to have positive effects on language and social-communication while, at the same time, respecting individuals’ needs and autonomy. One of the key goals in this type of intervention is putting the focus of therapy on the neurodivergent individual themselves in the creation of intervention goals, procedures, and outcomes. In doing so, they are likely to be seen as more acceptable, useful, and effective to that individual.[147]

In addition to support from neurodiversity advocates for affirming therapies, concerns have been raised about the role of certain approaches such as applied behavior analysis. Neurodivergent individuals and activists tend to emphasize the tendency of these interventions to set a goals-focused approach that, to a neurodivergent patient, might seem to center societal participation rather than the goals of the individual. In this sense, concerns from neurodivergent individuals tends to argue that these interventions aim to enforce conformity with expectations of society rather than addressing the needs of the person receiving the treatment.[148] While a large body of research on the role of ABA seems to support its efficacy in long term cognitive and behavioral outcomes, there remains concerns regarding long-term mental health impacts and with the measures used in determining social validity by those who have raised these concerns. In addition to advocates from within the neurodivergent community, some behavioral analysts have begun to reconsider the role of these therapies with the context of a neurodiversity framework.[148]

Reception and controversies

[edit]
Further information: Controversies in autism § Advocacy initiatives

The neurodiversity paradigm is controversial in autism advocacy. The dominant paradigm, the medical model of disability holds that neurodivergent individuals have medical conditions which should be treated. The neurodiversity paradigm, under the understanding that differences in neural function are natural variations in function, suggests that not all conditions that would be classified as neurodivergent need medical intervention. A prevalent criticism about application of the neurodiversity paradigm to autism comes from the understanding that – even with a framework of natural variance that neurodiversity includes – individuals with functional difficulties would continue to have challenges. Some critics of the neurodiversity paradigm, such as family members that are responsible for the care of an autistic individual, consider it detached from the needs of individuals that would continue to be functionally disabled through the frame of natural variation.[149]

A common criticism is that the neurodiversity paradigm is too widely encompassing and that its conception should exclude those whose functioning is more severely impaired. In response, autistic advocate Nick Walker suggested that neurodiversity refers specifically to "pervasive neurocognitive differences [...] intimately related to the formation and constitution of the self", in contrast to medical conditions such as epilepsy.[undue weight? – discuss]

"Critiques of the Neurodiversity Movement", a 2020 review, raised two concerns regarding the term neurotypical:

  • Many people who do not have an autism diagnosis have autistic traits (known by researchers as the "broad autism phenotype"), so there is no clear bimodal distribution separating people with and without autism. In reality there are not two distinct populations, one "neurotypical" and one "neurodivergent".[150]: 288 
  • "Neurotypical" was a dubious construct, because there is nobody who could be considered truly neurotypical, and there is no such standard for the human brain.[150]: 290 

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Kapp SK, ed. (2020). Autistic Community and the Neurodiversity Movement. doi:10.1007/978-981-13-8437-0. ISBN 978-981-13-8436-3.
  2. ^ a b Botha M, Chapman R, Giwa Onaiwu M, Kapp SK, Stannard Ashley A, Walker N (March 12, 2024). "The neurodiversity concept was developed collectively: An overdue correction on the origins of neurodiversity theory". Autism. 28 (6): 1591–1594. doi:10.1177/13623613241237871. ISSN 1362-3613. PMID 38470140.
  3. ^ Manalili MA, Pearson A, Sulik J, Creechan L, Elsherif M, Murkumbi I, et al. (February 2023). "From Puzzle to Progress: How Engaging With Neurodiversity Can Improve Cognitive Science" (PDF). Cognitive Science. 47 (2): e13255. doi:10.1111/cogs.13255. PMC 7616419. PMID 36807910. S2CID 257068968. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 7, 2023. Retrieved April 6, 2023.
  4. ^ "Reflections on the Neurodiversity Paradigm: What is Neurodiversity?". Reflections on the Neurodiversity Paradigm. Archived from the original on April 1, 2023. Retrieved April 12, 2022.
  5. ^ Singer J (July 3, 2016). NeuroDiversity: The Birth of an Idea (2nd ed.). Kindle Ebook. ISBN 978-0-6481547-0-9.[self-published source?]
  6. ^ Dwyer P (May 2022). "The Neurodiversity Approach(es): What Are They and What Do They Mean for Researchers?". Human Development. 66 (2): 73–92. doi:10.1159/000523723. PMC 9261839. PMID 36158596. S2CID 247062174.
  7. ^ Oliver M, Sapey B (2006). Social work with disabled people (3rd ed.). Basingstoke, Hampshire: Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 1-4039-1838-4. OCLC 62326930.
  8. ^ a b c Chapman R (January 10, 2019). "Neurodiversity Theory and Its Discontents: Autism, Schizophrenia, and the Social Model of Disability". In Tekin S, Bluhm R (eds.). The Bloomsbury Companion to Philosophy of Psychiatry. Bloomsbury. pp. 371–387. ISBN 978-1-350-02406-9. Archived from the original on July 19, 2023. Retrieved May 12, 2020.
  9. ^ a b Clouder L, Karakus M, Cinotti A, Ferreyra MV, Fierros GA, Rojo P (October 1, 2020). "Neurodiversity in higher education: a narrative synthesis". Higher Education. 80 (4): 757–778. doi:10.1007/s10734-020-00513-6. ISSN 1573-174X.
  10. ^ a b Densberger K (2021). "Book Review: Supporting Neurodiverse College Student Success: A Guide for Librarians, Student Support Services, and Academic Learning Environments". The Learning Assistance Review. 26 (2) – via National College Learning Center Association.
  11. ^ Opar A (May 6, 2019). "A medical condition or just a difference? The question roils autism community". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on December 9, 2019. Retrieved May 12, 2019.
  12. ^ Robison JE. "The Controversy Around Autism and Neurodiversity". Psychology Today. Archived from the original on March 22, 2023. Retrieved May 14, 2019.
  13. ^ McGee M (August 2012). "Neurodiversity". Contexts. 11 (3): 12–13. doi:10.1177/1536504212456175. S2CID 220720495.
  14. ^ Sarrett J (April 2016). "Biocertification and Neurodiversity the Role and Implications of Self-Diagnosis in Autistic Communities". www.researchgate.net. Archived from the original on March 6, 2022. Retrieved March 6, 2022.
  15. ^ Bailin A. "Clearing Up Some Misconceptions about Neurodiversity". Scientific American Blog Network. Archived from the original on June 29, 2019. Retrieved April 12, 2022.
  16. ^ Blume H (September 30, 1998). "Neurodiversity". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on January 5, 2013. Retrieved March 12, 2024.
  17. ^ a b "Meet Judy Singer Neurodiversity Pioneer". My Spectrum Suite. Archived from the original on June 6, 2019. Retrieved May 14, 2019.
  18. ^ Singer J (February 1, 1999). "'Why can't you be normal for once in your life?' From a 'problem with no name' to the emergence of a new category of difference". In Corker M, French S (eds.). Disability Discourse. McGraw-Hill Education (UK). pp. 59–67. ISBN 978-0-335-20222-5. Archived from the original on May 13, 2024. Retrieved May 12, 2020. For me, the key significance of the 'autism spectrum' lies in its call for and anticipation of a politics of neurological diversity, or neurodiversity.
  19. ^ Dekker M (November 8, 2019). "From Exclusion to Acceptance: Independent Living on the Autistic Spectrum". Autistic Community and the Neurodiversity Movement. Singapore: Springer Singapore. pp. 41–49. doi:10.1007/978-981-13-8437-0_3. ISBN 978-981-13-8436-3.
  20. ^ Blume H (July 1, 1997). ""Autism & The Internet" or "It's The Wiring, Stupid"". Media In Transition. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Archived from the original on April 27, 2018. Retrieved November 8, 2007. A project called CyberSpace 2000 is devoted to getting as many people as possible in the autistic spectrum hooked up by the year 2000, the reason being that "the Internet is an essential means for autistic people to improve their lives because it is often the only way they can communicate effectively."
  21. ^ Blume H (June 30, 1997). "Autistics, freed from face-to-face encounters, are communicating in cyberspace". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 26, 2008. Retrieved November 8, 2007. Yet, in trying to come to terms with [a neurotypical-dominated] world, autistics are neither willing nor able to give up their own customs. Instead, they are proposing a new social compact, one emphasizing neurological pluralism. [...] The consensus emerging from the Internet forums and Web sites where autistics congregate [...] is that NT is only one of many neurological configurations – the dominant one certainly, but not necessarily the best.
  22. ^ Dinh A (2024). Don't Mourn for Us: The Autistic Life of Jim Sinclair and an Extraordinary Story of Neurodiversity. Independently published. ISBN 979-8338157381.
  23. ^ Solomon A (May 25, 2008). "The autism rights movement". New York. Archived from the original on May 27, 2008. Retrieved May 27, 2008.
  24. ^ a b Fenton A, Krahn T (November 2007). "Autism, neurodiversity and equality beyond the'normal" (PDF). Journal of Ethics in Mental Health. 2 (2): 1–6. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 28, 2019. Retrieved August 9, 2013.
  25. ^ Sinclair, Jim. Don't Mourn For Us. Archived November 9, 2019, at the Wayback Machine Autism Network International. Retrieved May 7, 2013.
  26. ^ Dekker M (1999). "On Our Own Terms: Emerging autistic culture" (PDF). Autscape99. Archived from the original (PDF) on April 24, 2024.
  27. ^ "Autistics.Org". 1998. Archived from the original on June 25, 2004.
  28. ^ Tisoncik LA (2020), Kapp SK (ed.), "Autistics.Org and Finding Our Voices as an Activist Movement", Autistic Community and the Neurodiversity Movement: Stories from the Frontline, Singapore: Springer, pp. 65–76, doi:10.1007/978-981-13-8437-0_5, ISBN 978-981-13-8437-0
  29. ^ Andrews D (1998). "Autistic People Against Neuroleptic Abuse". Archived from the original on April 3, 2005.
  30. ^ Murray D (2020), Kapp SK (ed.), "Autistic People Against Neuroleptic Abuse", Autistic Community and the Neurodiversity Movement: Stories from the Frontline, Singapore: Springer, pp. 51–63, doi:10.1007/978-981-13-8437-0_4, ISBN 978-981-13-8437-0
  31. ^ Ira Eidle (August 12, 2021). Introduction to the Neurodiversity Movement. Retrieved May 17, 2024 – via YouTube.
  32. ^ "Ballastexistenz". Ballastexistenz. March 9, 2018. Retrieved May 17, 2024.
  33. ^ Leitch K (2003). "Left Brain Right Brain". Archived from the original on May 12, 2024. Retrieved May 16, 2024.
  34. ^ "Victory! The End of the Ransom Notes Campaign - Autistic Self Advocacy Network". autisticadvocacy.org/. December 19, 2007. Retrieved May 17, 2024.
  35. ^ Kaufman J (December 20, 2007). "Ransom-Note Ads About Children's Health Are Canceled". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved May 17, 2024.
  36. ^ Kras JF (2010). "The "Ransom Notes" Affair: When the Neurodiversity Movement Came of Age". Disability Studies Quarterly. 30 (1). doi:10.18061/dsq.v30i1.1065. ISSN 2159-8371.
  37. ^ "Autistic Women & Nonbinary Network (AWN)". awnnetwork.org/. Retrieved May 17, 2024.
  38. ^ "THINKING PERSON'S GUIDE TO AUTISM". THINKING PERSON'S GUIDE TO AUTISM. May 12, 2024. Retrieved May 17, 2024.
  39. ^ "#IAmNOTKelliStapleton #WalkInIssysShoes Flash Blog". iamnotkellistapletonflashblog.blogspot.com. Retrieved May 17, 2024.
  40. ^ "Crusading Against Hate: Why I #BoycottAutismspeaks". Crusading Against Hate: Why I #BoycottAutismspeaks. July 18, 2015. Retrieved May 17, 2024.
  41. ^ "Disability Day of Mourning – Remembering the Disabled Murdered by Caregivers". Retrieved May 17, 2024.
  42. ^ "Autistics Speaking Day". autisticsspeakingday.blogspot.com. Retrieved May 17, 2024.
  43. ^ Milton D (2020). "Neurodiversity past and present – an introduction to the neurodiversity reader.". In Milton D, Ridout S, Martin N, Mills R, Murray D (eds.). The Neurodiversity Reader. Pavilion. pp. 3–6. ISBN 978-1-912755-39-4.
  44. ^ a b c d e Walker N (2021). "Neurodiversity: Some Basic Terms & Definitions". Neuroqueer heresies: notes on the neurodiversity paradigm, autistic empowerment, and postnormal possibilities. Fort Worth: Autonomous Press. ISBN 978-1-945955-27-3.
  45. ^ Happé F, Frith U (March 2020). "Annual Research Review: Looking back to look forward – changes in the concept of autism and implications for future research". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines. 61 (3): 218–232. doi:10.1111/jcpp.13176. PMID 31994188. S2CID 210948288. Archived from the original on April 1, 2023. Retrieved April 6, 2023.
  46. ^ Pellicano E, den Houting J (April 2022). "Annual Research Review: Shifting from 'normal science' to neurodiversity in autism science". Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, and Allied Disciplines. 63 (4): 381–396. doi:10.1111/jcpp.13534. PMC 9298391. PMID 34730840. S2CID 241118562.
  47. ^ Dinishak J (December 2, 2016). "The Deficit View and Its Critics". Disability Studies Quarterly. 36 (4). doi:10.18061/dsq.v36i4.5236. ISSN 2159-8371. Archived from the original on March 27, 2022. Retrieved April 19, 2022.
  48. ^ Mottron L (November 2011). "Changing perceptions: The power of autism". Nature. 479 (7371): 33–35. Bibcode:2011Natur.479...33M. doi:10.1038/479033a. PMID 22051659. S2CID 4431484.
  49. ^ a b Schuck RK, Tagavi DM, Baiden KM, Dwyer P, Williams ZJ, Osuna A, et al. (October 2022). "Neurodiversity and Autism Intervention: Reconciling Perspectives Through a Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Intervention Framework". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 52 (10): 4625–4645. doi:10.1007/s10803-021-05316-x. PMC 9508016. PMID 34643863. S2CID 238744698.
  50. ^ McGill O, Robinson A. "Recalling hidden harms: autistic experiences of childhood" (PDF). Strathprints.strath.ac.uk. Archived (PDF) from the original on July 3, 2022. Retrieved July 24, 2022. Applied Behavioural Analysis (ABA). Advances in Autism
  51. ^ Cook J, Hull L, Crane L, Mandy W (November 2021). "Camouflaging in autism: A systematic review". Clinical Psychology Review. 89: 102080. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2021.102080. PMID 34563942. S2CID 237942158. Archived from the original on May 26, 2023. Retrieved April 6, 2023.
  52. ^ Ai W, Cunningham WA, Lai MC (August 2022). "Reconsidering autistic 'camouflaging' as transactional impression management". Trends in Cognitive Sciences. 26 (8): 631–645. doi:10.1016/j.tics.2022.05.002. PMID 35641372. S2CID 249134232.
  53. ^ Ne'eman A (July 2021). "When Disability Is Defined by Behavior, Outcome Measures Should Not Promote "Passing"". AMA Journal of Ethics. 23 (7): E569–E575. doi:10.1001/amajethics.2021.569. PMC 8957386. PMID 34351268.
  54. ^ Bury SM, Haschek A, Wenzel M, Spoor JR, Hedley D (2022). "Brief Report: Learning About Autism: Is the Source of Autism Knowledge Associated with Differences in Autism Knowledge, Autism Identity, and Experiences of Stigma". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 54 (11): 4346–4353. doi:10.1007/s10803-022-05823-5. PMID 36443495.
  55. ^ https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1050897/pdf
  56. ^ Bottema-Beutel K, Kapp SK, Lester JN, Sasson NJ, Hand BN (March 2021). "Avoiding Ableist Language: Suggestions for Autism Researchers". Autism in Adulthood. 3 (1): 18–29. doi:10.1089/aut.2020.0014. PMC 8992888. PMID 36601265. S2CID 221764244.
  57. ^ den Houting J, Pellicano E (November 2019). "A Portfolio Analysis of Autism Research Funding in Australia, 2008–2017". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 49 (11): 4400–4408. doi:10.1007/s10803-019-04155-1. PMID 31375971. S2CID 199388927.
  58. ^ Frazier TW, Dawson G, Murray D, Shih A, Sachs JS, Geiger A (November 2018). "Brief Report: A Survey of Autism Research Priorities Across a Diverse Community of Stakeholders". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 48 (11): 3965–3971. doi:10.1007/s10803-018-3642-6. PMID 29948533. S2CID 49429912.
  59. ^ Jose C, George-Zwicker P, Tardif L, Bouma A, Pugsley D, Pugsley L, et al. (2020). ""We are the stakeholders with the most at stake": scientific and autism community co-researchers reflect on their collaborative experience in the CONNECT project". Research Involvement and Engagement. 6: 58. doi:10.1186/s40900-020-00233-2. PMC 7520966. PMID 33005439.
  60. ^ Ne'eman A, Pellicano E (May 2022). "Neurodiversity as Politics". Human Development. 66 (2): 149–157. doi:10.1159/000524277. PMC 9881465. PMID 36714278. S2CID 247829768.
  61. ^ Charlton RA, Entecott T, Belova E, Nwaordu G (2021). ""It feels like holding back something you need to say": Autistic and Non-Autistic Adults accounts of sensory experiences and stimming" (PDF). Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 89: 101864. doi:10.1016/j.rasd.2021.101864. S2CID 240532683. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 23, 2023. Retrieved April 6, 2023.
  62. ^ a b c d Leadbitter K, Buckle KL, Ellis C, Dekker M (2021). "Autistic Self-Advocacy and the Neurodiversity Movement: Implications for Autism Early Intervention Research and Practice". Frontiers in Psychology. 12: 635690. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.635690. PMC 8075160. PMID 33912110.
  63. ^ Thompson R (September 3, 2020). "Disability Justice Advocate and Writer Lydia X. Z. Brown on Autism and Neurodivergence". ROOM Magazine. Archived from the original on March 4, 2024. Retrieved March 4, 2024.
  64. ^ "Neurodivergence". University of Massachusetts Office of the President. Archived from the original on March 4, 2024. Retrieved March 4, 2024.
  65. ^ Coates S (October 25, 2022). "Neurodiversity in the Voice Studio, Clinic, and Performance Space: Using a Neurodiversity Affirming Lens to Build More Inclusive Spaces for Singers. Part 1, Current Understanding of Neurodiversity". Journal of Singing. 79 (2): 213–219. doi:10.53830/VHSX6387. S2CID 253177063. Archived from the original on October 27, 2022. Retrieved March 4, 2024.
  66. ^ Chapman R (August 18, 2021). "Negotiating the Neurodiversity Concept". Psychology Today. Archived from the original on March 8, 2024. Retrieved March 4, 2024.
  67. ^ Liebowitz C (March 4, 2016). "Here's What Neurodiversity Is – And What It Means For Feminism". Everyday Feminism. Archived from the original on March 4, 2024. Retrieved March 8, 2024.
  68. ^ Adams D, Kaliss N, Missner A, Valentine MM (2021). "The Interplay of Nicotine and Social Stress Mediate Dopaminergic Neuron Firing in the Ventral Tegmental Area – Nucleus Accumbens Pathway, Contributing to Stress and Depressive Mood Disorder". Georgetown Scientific Research Journal: 70–83. doi:10.48091/SUVN5250. S2CID 234261007. Archived from the original on March 30, 2023. Retrieved September 19, 2022.
  69. ^ Homan P, Reddan MC, Brosch T, Koenigsberg HW, Schiller D (November 2017). "Aberrant link between empathy and social attribution style in borderline personality disorder". Journal of Psychiatric Research. 94: 163–171. doi:10.1016/j.jpsychires.2017.07.012. PMID 28735169. Archived from the original on December 6, 2021. Retrieved April 6, 2023.
  70. ^ Corsi E, Cardi V, Sowden S, Coll MP, Cascino G, Ricca V, et al. (August 2021). "Socio-cognitive processing in people with eating disorders: Computerized tests of mentalizing, empathy and imitation skills". The International Journal of Eating Disorders. 54 (8): 1509–1518. doi:10.1002/eat.23556. PMC 8453969. PMID 34056730.
  71. ^ Simpson E, Dalal S, Semaan B (April 14, 2023). ""Hey, Can You Add Captions?": The Critical Infrastructuring Practices of Neurodiverse People on TikTok". Proceedings of the ACM on Human-Computer Interaction. 7 (CSCW1): 1–27. arXiv:2212.06204. doi:10.1145/3579490. ISSN 2573-0142. S2CID 254591329.
  72. ^ "Is it OK to use the term 'neurospicy' when talking about autism and other neurodivergences?". medicalxpress.com. November 15, 2024. Retrieved November 20, 2024.
  73. ^ "Neurospicy Meaning & Origin". womenshealthpodcast.com. April 11, 2024. Retrieved November 20, 2024.
  74. ^ "Advice | He's been diagnosed with autism. Is it too late to keep his job?". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Archived from the original on March 14, 2023. Retrieved March 30, 2023.
  75. ^ "Neurotypical". Cambridge English Dictionary. Archived from the original on February 21, 2023. Retrieved May 23, 2022.
  76. ^ Walker N (2021). Neuroqueer Heresies. Autonomous Press. p. 40. ISBN 978-1-945955-26-6.
  77. ^ Hare DJ, Jones S, Evershed K (November 2006). "A comparative study of circadian rhythm functioning and sleep in people with Asperger syndrome". Autism. 10 (6): 565–575. doi:10.1177/1362361306068509. PMID 17088273. S2CID 21545034.
  78. ^ O'Connor K, Hamm JP, Kirk IJ (October 2005). "The neurophysiological correlates of face processing in adults and children with Asperger's syndrome". Brain and Cognition. 59 (1): 82–95. doi:10.1016/j.bandc.2005.05.004. PMID 16009478. S2CID 29490793.
  79. ^ Legault M, Bourdon JN, Poirier P (December 1, 2021). "From neurodiversity to neurodivergence: the role of epistemic and cognitive marginalization". Synthese. 199 (5): 12843–12868. doi:10.1007/s11229-021-03356-5. ISSN 1573-0964.
  80. ^ "Why there is no such thing as a 'normal' brain".
  81. ^ Costandi M (October 7, 2011). "Memory errors are all in the groove". The Guardian.
  82. ^ "Language and abbreviations". June 6, 2008. Archived from the original on June 6, 2008. Retrieved April 19, 2022.
  83. ^ Arnold L (October 7, 2017). "A brief history of "Neurodiversity" as a concept and perhaps a movement". Autonomy, the Critical Journal of Interdisciplinary Autism Studies. 1 (5). ISSN 2051-5189. Archived from the original on December 1, 2022. Retrieved December 30, 2022.
  84. ^ Tisoncik LA (2020). "Autistics.Org and Finding Our Voices as an Activist Movement". In Kapp SK (ed.). Autistic Community and the Neurodiversity Movement. Singapore: Springer. pp. 65–76. doi:10.1007/978-981-13-8437-0_5. ISBN 978-981-13-8437-0. S2CID 210502958.
  85. ^ Blume H (September 30, 1998). "Neurodiversity". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on January 5, 2013. Retrieved April 19, 2022.
  86. ^ Walker N (2021). Neuroqueer heresies: notes on the neurodiversity paradigm, autistic empowerment, and postnormal possibilities. Autonomous Press. pp. 33–46. ISBN 978-1-945955-26-6. OCLC 1287945422. Archived from the original on December 30, 2022. Retrieved December 30, 2022.
  87. ^ McNaughton R, Pieper C, Sakai O, Rollins JV, Zhang X, Kennedy DN, et al. (August 2022). "Quantitative MRI Characterization of the Extremely Preterm Brain at Adolescence: Atypical versus Neurotypical Developmental Pathways". Radiology. 304 (2): 419–428. doi:10.1148/radiol.210385. PMC 9340244. PMID 35471112.
  88. ^ "Allistic". Cambridge English Dictionary. Archived from the original on November 30, 2022. Retrieved April 18, 2022.
  89. ^ Cashin A, Sci DA (August 2006). "Two terms--one meaning: the conundrum of contemporary nomenclature in autism". Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Nursing. 19 (3): 137–144. doi:10.1111/j.1744-6171.2006.00061.x. PMID 16913963.
  90. ^ "How to talk about autism". www.autism.org.uk. Archived from the original on March 7, 2022. Retrieved April 18, 2022.
  91. ^ Crompton CJ, DeBrabander K, Heasman B, Milton D, Sasson NJ (May 11, 2021). "Double Empathy: Why Autistic People Are Often Misunderstood". Frontiers for Young Minds. 9: 554875. doi:10.3389/frym.2021.554875. hdl:20.500.11820/94ee032a-6103-470a-bc06-08337dd6b512. ISSN 2296-6846.
  92. ^ DeThorne L (April 1, 2020). "Revealing the Double Empathy Problem: It's not that autistic* people lack empathy. Rather, their different neurotypes and experiences may make it harder for nonautisic people to understand them—and vice versa". The ASHA Leader. 25: 58–65. doi:10.1044/leader.FTR2.25042020.58. S2CID 216359201. Archived from the original on May 13, 2024. Retrieved January 1, 2023 – via ResearchGate.
  93. ^ Milton DE (October 1, 2012). "On the ontological status of autism: the 'double empathy problem'". Disability & Society. 27 (6): 883–887. doi:10.1080/09687599.2012.710008. ISSN 0968-7599. S2CID 54047060. Archived from the original on May 13, 2024. Retrieved April 5, 2023.
  94. ^ Rifai OM, Fletcher-Watson S, Jiménez-Sánchez L, Crompton CJ (March 2022). "Investigating Markers of Rapport in Autistic and Nonautistic Interactions". Autism in Adulthood. 4 (1): 3–11. doi:10.1089/aut.2021.0017. PMC 8992924. PMID 36600904.
  95. ^ "The double empathy problem". www.autism.org.uk. Archived from the original on March 30, 2023. Retrieved June 3, 2023.
  96. ^ Jaswal VK, Akhtar N (June 2018). "Being versus appearing socially uninterested: Challenging assumptions about social motivation in autism". The Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 42: e82. doi:10.1017/s0140525x18001826. PMID 29914590. S2CID 49305763.
  97. ^ Jaarsma P, Welin S (March 2012). "Autism as a natural human variation: reflections on the claims of the neurodiversity movement" (PDF). Health Care Analysis. 20 (1): 20–30. doi:10.1007/s10728-011-0169-9. PMID 21311979. S2CID 18618887. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 1, 2013.
  98. ^ Woodford G (2006). "'We Don't Need to be Cured' Autistics Say". National Review of Medicine. 3 (8). Archived from the original on March 3, 2016.
  99. ^ Arnold L (2020). "Autonomy, the Critical Journal of Interdisciplinary Autism Studies". In Kapp SK (ed.). Autistic Community and the Neurodiversity Movement: Stories from the Frontline. Singapore: Springer. pp. 211–220. doi:10.1007/978-981-13-8437-0_15. ISBN 978-981-13-8437-0. S2CID 210551456.
  100. ^ Mackenzie R, Watts J (January 31, 2011). "Is our legal, health care and social support infrastructure neurodiverse enough? How far are the aims of the neurodiversity movement fulfilled for those diagnosed with cognitive disability and learning disability?". Tizard Learning Disability Review. 16 (1): 30–37. doi:10.5042/tldr.2011.0005. We recommend, therefore, that the term neurodiverse include the conditions ASD, ADHD, OCD, language disorders, developmental coordination disorder, dyslexia and Tourette's syndrome.
  101. ^ Morrice P (January 29, 2006). "Otherwise Minded". The New York Times. Archived from the original on November 21, 2015. Retrieved February 11, 2017. review of A Mind Apart: Travels in a Neurodiverse World
  102. ^ Antonetta S (2005). A mind apart: travels in a neurodiverse world. New York: Jeremy P. Tarcher/Penguin. ISBN 1-58542-382-3. OCLC 60671914.
  103. ^ Anton AL (2013). "The Virtue of Sociopaths: how to appreciate the neurodiversity of sociopathy without becoming a victim". Ethics and Neurodiversity. Archived from the original on December 10, 2019. Retrieved August 2, 2015.
  104. ^ "Position Statements". Autistic Self Advocacy Network. May 28, 2011. Archived from the original on July 17, 2012. Retrieved April 21, 2013.
  105. ^ Leadbitter K, Buckle KL, Ellis C, Dekker M (April 12, 2021). "Autistic Self-Advocacy and the Neurodiversity Movement: Implications for Autism Early Intervention Research and Practice". Frontiers in Psychology. 12: 635690. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2021.635690. PMC 8075160. PMID 33912110.
  106. ^ "What We Believe - Autistic Self Advocacy Network". 2021. Archived from the original on February 12, 2022. Retrieved September 30, 2023.
  107. ^ "What is Neurodiversity?". National Symposium on Neurodiversity at Syracuse University. 2011. Archived from the original on April 16, 2019. Retrieved October 2, 2012.
  108. ^ Subramanyam AA, Mukherjee A, Dave M, Chavda K (January 2019). "Clinical Practice Guidelines for Autism Spectrum Disorders". Indian Journal of Psychiatry. 61 (Suppl 2): 254–269. doi:10.4103/psychiatry.IndianJPsychiatry_542_18. PMC 6345133. PMID 30745701.
  109. ^ Lupton E, Kafei F, Tobias J, Halstead JA, Sales K, Xia L, et al. (2021). Extra bold: a feminist inclusive anti-racist nonbinary field guide for graphic designers (First ed.). Hudson, NY: Princeton Architectural Press. ISBN 978-1-61689-918-9.
  110. ^ a b c Griffin E, Pollak D (February 2009). "Student experiences of neurodiversity in higher education: insights from the BRAINHE project". Dyslexia. 15 (1): 23–41. doi:10.1002/dys.383. PMID 19140120.
  111. ^ Kapp SK, Gillespie-Lynch K, Sherman LE, Hutman T (January 2013). "Deficit, difference, or both? Autism and neurodiversity". Developmental Psychology. 49 (1): 59–71. doi:10.1037/a0028353. PMID 22545843. Archived from the original on June 23, 2020. Retrieved May 12, 2020.
  112. ^ "What Is Neurodiversity?". Psychology Today. Archived from the original on May 13, 2024. Retrieved September 17, 2020.
  113. ^ a b Kwon, Chang-kyu, et al. "Understanding Career Development Pathways of College Students with Disabilities using Crip Theory and the Theory of Whole Self." Journal of Diversity in Higher Education 16.4 (2023): 520–525. ProQuest. Web. 27 July 2023.
  114. ^ Kwon Ck, Guadalupe SS, Archer M, Groomes DA (August 2023). "Understanding career development pathways of college students with disabilities using crip theory and the theory of whole self". Journal of Diversity in Higher Education. 16 (4): 520–525. doi:10.1037/dhe0000464. ISSN 1938-8934.
  115. ^ a b c d e f Clouder L, Karakus M, Cinotti A, Ferreyra MV, Fierros GA, Rojo P (October 1, 2020). "Neurodiversity in higher education: a narrative synthesis". Higher Education. 80 (4): 757–778. doi:10.1007/s10734-020-00513-6. ISSN 1573-174X.
  116. ^ a b c Clouder L, Karakus M, Cinotti A, Ferreyra MV, Fierros GA, Rojo P (October 1, 2020). "Neurodiversity in higher education: a narrative synthesis". Higher Education. 80 (4): 757–778. doi:10.1007/s10734-020-00513-6. ISSN 1573-174X.
  117. ^ Clouder L, Karakus M, Cinotti A, Ferreyra MV, Fierros GA, Rojo P (June 7, 2020). "Neurodiversity in higher education: a narrative synthesis". Higher Education. 80 (4): 757–778. doi:10.1007/s10734-020-00513-6. ISSN 0018-1560. S2CID 219680857. Archived from the original on May 13, 2024. Retrieved February 25, 2024.
  118. ^ Hamilton LG, Petty S (February 16, 2023). "Compassionate pedagogy for neurodiversity in higher education: A conceptual analysis". Frontiers in Psychology. 14. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1093290. ISSN 1664-1078. PMC 9978378. PMID 36874864.
  119. ^ Clouder L, Karakus M, Cinotti A, Ferreyra MV, Fierros GA, Rojo P (October 1, 2020). "Neurodiversity in higher education: a narrative synthesis". Higher Education. 80 (4): 757–778. doi:10.1007/s10734-020-00513-6. ISSN 1573-174X.
  120. ^ Nachman, Brett Ranon, and Kirsten R. Brown. "Crip Places: Dismantling Disability Discourse in the 2-Year College Literature." Journal of Diversity in Higher Education (2022)ProQuest. Web. 27 July 2023.
  121. ^ a b Whelpley CE, May CP (April 2023). "Seeing is Disliking: Evidence of Bias Against Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder in Traditional Job Interviews". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 53 (4): 1363–1374. doi:10.1007/s10803-022-05432-2. PMID 35294714. S2CID 247498491.
  122. ^ Willis C, Powell-Rudy T, Colley K, Prasad J (November 2021). "Examining the Use of Game-Based Assessments for Hiring Autistic Job Seekers". Journal of Intelligence. 9 (4): 53. doi:10.3390/jintelligence9040053. PMC 8628896. PMID 34842751.
  123. ^ OECD/European Union (2017). "Specialisterne & SAP: A partnership for access to markets, multiple countries/Denmark". Boosting Social Enterprise Development: Good Practice Compendium. Local Economic and Employment Development (LEED). Paris: OECD Publishing. pp. 215–223. doi:10.1787/9789264268500-22-en. ISBN 978-92-64-26850-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 7, 2024.
  124. ^ Moran G (December 7, 2019). "Companies Like Microsoft and Goldman Sachs Are Hiring More Neurodiverse Talent". Fortune. Retrieved July 7, 2024.
  125. ^ "Neurodiversity inclusion projects". Specialisterne Brasil. Retrieved July 7, 2024.
  126. ^ de Beer J, Heerkens Y, Engels J, van der Klink J (May 2022). "Factors relevant to work participation from the perspective of adults with developmental dyslexia: a systematic review of qualitative studies". BMC Public Health. 22 (1): 1083. doi:10.1186/s12889-022-13436-x. PMC 9158268. PMID 35642026.
  127. ^ Lauder K, McDowall A, Tenenbaum HR (2022). "A systematic review of interventions to support adults with ADHD at work – Implications from the paucity of context-specific research for theory and practice". Frontiers in Psychology. 13: 893469. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2022.893469. PMC 9443814. PMID 36072032.
  128. ^ Goldfarb Y, Gal E, Golan O (January 2022). "Implications of Employment Changes Caused by COVID-19 on Mental Health and Work-Related Psychological Need Satisfaction of Autistic Employees: A Mixed-Methods Longitudinal Study". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 52 (1): 89–102. doi:10.1007/s10803-021-04902-3. PMC 7908957. PMID 33635422.
  129. ^ Tomczak MT, Mpofu E, Hutson N (September 2022). "Remote Work Support Needs of Employees with Autism Spectrum Disorder in Poland: Perspectives of Individuals with Autism and Their Coworkers". International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 19 (17): 10982. doi:10.3390/ijerph191710982. PMC 9518488. PMID 36078696.
  130. ^ a b Wang T, Garfield M, Wisniewski P, Page X (October 17, 2020). "Conference Companion Publication of the 2020 on Computer Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing". Conference Companion Publication of the 2020 on Computer Supported Cooperative Work and Social Computing. New York: Association for Computing Machinery. pp. 419–424. doi:10.1145/3406865.3418322. ISBN 978-1-4503-8059-1.
  131. ^ a b Gabarron E, Dechsling A, Skafle I, Nordahl-Hansen A (March 2022). "Discussions of Asperger Syndrome on Social Media: Content and Sentiment Analysis on Twitter". JMIR Formative Research. 6 (3): e32752. doi:10.2196/32752. PMC 8938830. PMID 35254265.
  132. ^ a b Brownlow C, Bertilsdotter Rosqvist H, O'Dell L (November 2, 2015). "Exploring the potential for social networking among people with autism: challenging dominant ideas of 'friendship'". Scandinavian Journal of Disability Research. 17 (2): 188–193. doi:10.1080/15017419.2013.859174. ISSN 1745-3011.
  133. ^ "Blossom: An App for the Neurodiverse Community". The Lakshmi Mittal and Family South Asia Institute. January 26, 2022. Archived from the original on May 29, 2022. Retrieved April 11, 2022.
  134. ^ a b c Calhoun AJ, Gold JA (April 2020). "'I Feel Like I Know Them': the Positive Effect of Celebrity Self-disclosure of Mental Illness". Academic Psychiatry. 44 (2): 237–241. doi:10.1007/s40596-020-01200-5. PMID 32100256. S2CID 211479198.
  135. ^ Stuart H (February 1, 2006). "Media portrayal of mental illness and its treatments: what effect does it have on people with mental illness?". CNS Drugs. 20 (2): 99–106. doi:10.2165/00023210-200620020-00002. PMID 16478286. S2CID 21633246.
  136. ^ a b c d Bitman N (February 11, 2022). ""Authentic" digital inclusion? Dis/ability performances on social media by users with concealable communicative disabilities". New Media and Society. 24 (2): 401–419. doi:10.1177/14614448211063183. ISSN 1461-4448. S2CID 246777065. Archived from the original on April 15, 2022. Retrieved April 11, 2022 – via Sage Journals.
  137. ^ Salisbury M, Pooley J (January 20, 2017). "The #nofilter Self: The Contest for Authenticity among Social Networking Sites, 2002–2016". Social Sciences. 6 (1): 10. doi:10.3390/socsci6010010. ISSN 2076-0760.
  138. ^ a b Duong D, Vogel L (July 2022). "Untapped potential: embracing neurodiversity in medicine". CMAJ. 194 (27): E951–E952. doi:10.1503/cmaj.1096006. PMC 9299741. PMID 35851534.
  139. ^ a b c Im DS, Tamarelli CM (2023). "Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder in Medical Learners and Physicians and a Potentially Helpful Educational Tool". Advances in Medical Education and Practice. 14: 435–442. doi:10.2147/AMEP.S398196. PMC 10149068. PMID 37131931.
  140. ^ a b "Embracing Neurodiversity in Our Health Systems". www.aap.org. Retrieved October 26, 2023.
  141. ^ "Stanford Neurodiversity Project". Stanford Neurodiversity Project (in Samoan). Retrieved October 26, 2023.
  142. ^ a b Dunn ZD, Gowda A, Horsfall Turner IC (January 2024). "The viability of a proposed psychoeducational neurodiversity approach in children services: The PANDA (the Portsmouth alliance's neuro-diversity approach)". Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry. 29 (1): 198–212. doi:10.1177/13591045231184121. PMID 37311174. S2CID 259153165.
  143. ^ a b Chapman R, Botha M (March 2023). "Neurodivergence-informed therapy". Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology. 65 (3): 310–317. doi:10.1111/dmcn.15384. PMID 36082483. S2CID 252161995.
  144. ^ a b Healey G (2023). "What is neurodiversity affirming therapy?". Lawson Clinical Psychology. Archived from the original on November 28, 2023. Retrieved October 22, 2023.
  145. ^ a b McDonald TA, Lalani S, Chen I, Cotton CM, MacDonald L, Boursoulian LJ, et al. (August 2023). "Appropriateness, Acceptability, and Feasibility of a Neurodiversity-Based Self-determination Program for Autistic Adults". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 53 (8): 2933–2953. doi:10.1007/s10803-022-05598-9. PMC 9934918. PMID 35618972.
  146. ^ a b Manning C, Scerif G (August 2023). "Understanding perceptual decisions by studying development and neurodiversity". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 32 (4): 300–306. doi:10.1177/09637214231162369. PMC 7614885. PMID 37547284.
  147. ^ a b Schuck RK, Tagavi DM, Baiden KM, Dwyer P, Williams ZJ, Osuna A, et al. (October 2022). "Neurodiversity and Autism Intervention: Reconciling Perspectives Through a Naturalistic Developmental Behavioral Intervention Framework". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 52 (10): 4625–4645. doi:10.1007/s10803-021-05316-x. PMC 9508016. PMID 34643863.
  148. ^ a b Leaf JB, Cihon JH, Leaf R, McEachin J, Liu N, Russell N, et al. (June 2022). "Concerns About ABA-Based Intervention: An Evaluation and Recommendations". Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders. 52 (6): 2838–2853. doi:10.1007/s10803-021-05137-y. PMC 9114057. PMID 34132968.
  149. ^ Dwyer P (February 22, 2022). "The Neurodiversity Approach(es): What Are They and What Do They Mean for Researchers?". Human Development. 66 (2): 73–92. doi:10.1159/000523723. ISSN 0018-716X. PMC 9261839. PMID 36158596. Archived from the original on May 13, 2024. Retrieved April 5, 2024.
  150. ^ a b Russell G (2020). "Critiques of the Neurodiversity Movement" (PDF). In Kapp S (ed.). Autistic Community and the Neurodiversity Movement. Singapore: Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 287–303. doi:10.1007/978-981-13-8437-0_21. ISBN 978-981-13-8437-0. OCLC 1127055276. S2CID 210483688. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 28, 2021. Retrieved May 13, 2022.

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Neurodiversity&oldid=1258640453#Neurotypical_or_neuroconforming"