Jump to content

Kea

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Mountain Parrot)
For other uses, see Kea (disambiguation).
Not to be confused with Kia.

Kea
An adult kea in Fiordland
CITES Appendix II (CITES)[2]
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Aves
Order: Psittaciformes
Family: Strigopidae
Genus: Nestor
Species:
N. notabilis
Binomial name
Nestor notabilis
Gould, 1856
Range in green

The kea (/ˈkiːə/ KEE-ə; Māori: [kɛ.a]; Nestor notabilis) is a species of large parrot in the family Strigopidae[3] that is endemic to the forested and alpine regions of the South Island of New Zealand.[4] About 48 cm (19 in) long, it is mostly olive-green, with brilliant orange under its wings and has a large, narrow, curved, grey-brown upper beak. Its omnivorous diet consists mainly of roots, leaves, berries, nectar, and insects, but also includes carrion.[5] It was once killed for bounty due to concern by sheep-farmers that it attacked livestock, especially sheep.[6] The kea is now uncommon, and received absolute protection under the Wildlife Act in 1986.[7]

The kea nests in burrows or crevices among the roots of trees. Kea are known for their intelligence and curiosity, both vital to their survival in a harsh mountain environment. Kea can solve logical puzzles, such as pushing and pulling things in a certain order to get to food, and will work together to achieve a certain objective.[8] They have been filmed preparing and using tools.[9]

Taxonomy and naming

[edit]

The kea was described by ornithologist John Gould in 1856, from two specimens shown to him by Walter Mantell, who obtained the birds in Murihiku.[10] Eight years earlier, some elderly Māori had told Mantell about the bird, and how it used to visit the coast in winter but had not been seen in recent times. Mantell subsequently investigated and obtained the birds.

The kea's Latin binomial specific epithet, notabilis, means "noteworthy".[11] The common name kea is from Māori, probably an onomatopoeic representation of their in-flight call – 'keee aaa'.[12] The word "kea" is both singular and plural.

The genus Nestor contains four species: the New Zealand kākā (Nestor meridionalis), the kea (N. notabilis), the extinct Norfolk kākā (N. productus), and the extinct Chatham kākā (N. chathamensis). All four are thought to stem from a "proto-kākā", dwelling in the forests of New Zealand five million years ago.[13][14] Their closest relative is the flightless kākāpō (Strigops habroptilus).[13][14][15][16] Together, they form the parrot superfamily Strigopoidea, an ancient group that split off from all other Psittacidae before their radiation.[13][14][16][17]

Description

[edit]
Juveniles have yellow eyerings and cere, an orange-yellow lower beak, and grey-yellow legs
Adult kea close-up at Milford Sound
Orange feathers can be seen under the wing during flight

The kea is a large parrot measuring 46 to 50 cm (18 to 20 in) in total length, with some specimens possibly reaching 55 cm (22 in).[18][19][20] Adult kea weigh between 750 and 1,000 g (1.65 and 2.20 lb), with males averaging 956 g (2.108 lb) and females averaging 779 g (1.717 lb). One source listed the mean adult weight as 922 g (2.033 lb)[21][22][23] It has mostly olive-green plumage with a grey beak having a long, narrow, curved upper beak. The adult has dark-brown irises, and the cere, eyerings, and legs are grey. It has orange feathers on the undersides of its wings. The feathers on the sides of its face are dark olive-brown, the ones on its back and rump are orange-red, and some of the outer wing feathers are dull blue. It has a short, broad, bluish-green tail with a black tip. Feather shafts project at the tip of the tail and the undersides of the inner tail feathers have yellow-orange transverse stripes.[24] The male is about 5% longer than the female, and the male's upper beak is 12–14% longer than the female's.[25] Juveniles generally resemble adults, but have yellow eyerings and cere, an orange-yellow lower beak, and grey-yellow legs.[24]

Dickcissel male perched on a metal pole singing, with neck stretched and beak open.

Songs and calls

Kea call:

Listen to the Kea on xeno-canto

Distribution and habitat

[edit]

The kea is one of nine living endemic parrot species in New Zealand.[26]

Kea sign at Arthur's Pass

The kea ranges from lowland river valleys and coastal forests of the South Island's west coast up to alpine regions of the South Island such as Arthur's Pass and Aoraki / Mount Cook National Park. It is closely associated throughout its range with the southern beech (Nothofagus) forests in the alpine ridge.[27]

Apart from occasional vagrants, kea today are not found in the North Island. Subfossil kea bones have been found in sand dunes at Mataikona in the eastern Wairarapa, Poukawa near Hastings, and Waitomo, indicating that they ranged through lowland forest over much of the North Island until the arrival of Polynesian settlers about 750 years ago.[28] Kea subfossils are not restricted to alpine areas, being commonly found in lowland or coastal sites in the South Island.[29] The current distribution of kea reflects the effects of mammalian predators, including humans, which have driven them out of lowland forests into the mountains.[30]

Behaviour

[edit]

Breeding

[edit]

At least one observer has reported that the kea is polygynous, with one male attached to multiple females. The same source also noted that there was a surplus of females.[31]

Kea are social and live in groups of up to 13 birds.[32] Isolated individuals do badly in captivity, but respond well to seeing themselves in a mirror.[33]

Kea chick, Weltvogelpark Walsrode, Germany

In one study, nest sites occur at a density of one per 4.4 square kilometres (1.7 sq mi).[34] The breeding areas are most commonly in southern beech (Nothofagus) forests, located on steep mountainsides. Breeding at heights of 1,600 metres (5,200 ft) above sea level and higher, it is one of the few parrot species in the world to regularly spend time above the tree line. Nest sites are usually positioned on the ground underneath large beech trees, in rock crevices, or dug burrows between roots. They are accessed by tunnels leading back 1 to 6 metres (3.3 to 19.7 ft) into a larger chamber, which is furnished with lichens, moss, ferns, and rotting wood. The laying period starts in July and reaches into January.[35] Two to five white eggs are laid, with an incubation time of around 21 days, and a brooding period of 94 days.[36]

Mortality is high among young kea, with less than 40% surviving their first year.[37] The median lifespan of a wild subadult kea has been estimated at five years, based on the proportion of kea seen again in successive seasons in Arthur's Pass, and allowing for some emigration to surrounding areas. Around 10% of the local kea population were expected to be over 20 years of age.[38] The oldest known captive kea was 50 years old in 2008.[37]

Cognitive Abilities

[edit]

Kea parrots have strong cognitive abilities. According to recent studies, Kea share the ability to have sense of impulsive control and planning forward. Kea can wait up to 160 seconds for a more preferred reward. In addition, Kea also use trial and error tactics and use observational leaning to solve difficult problems and when tasked with puzzles and locks. These abilities of decision-making are similar to primates and other intelligent bird species like the African grey parrot.[39][40]

Diet and feeding

[edit]

An omnivore, the kea feeds on more than 40 plant species, beetle larvae, grasshoppers, land snails, other birds (including shearwater chicks), and mammals (including sheep, rabbits and mice).[8][32][41] It has been observed breaking open shearwater nests to feed on the chicks after hearing the chicks in their nests.[42] It enjoys the flesh and bone marrow from carcasses.[41] The kea has also taken advantage of human garbage and "gifts" of food.[43]

Tool use behavior has been observed in this species, wherein a bird named Bruce, who has a broken upper beak, wedged pebbles between his tongue and lower mandible and then utilized this arrangement to aid with his preening habits.[44]

Sheep

[edit]
Sheep, suspected to have been killed by kea in July 1907

The controversy about whether the kea preys on sheep is long-running. Sheep suffering from unusual wounds on their sides or loins were noticed by the mid-1860s, within a decade of sheep farmers moving into the high country. Although some supposed the cause was a new disease, suspicion soon fell on the kea. James MacDonald, head shepherd at Wanaka Station, witnessed a kea attacking a sheep in 1868, and similar accounts were widespread.[5] Prominent members of the scientific community accepted that kea attacked sheep, with Alfred Wallace citing this as an example of behavioural change in his 1889 book Darwinism.[45] Thomas Potts noted that attacks were most frequent during winter and snow-bound sheep with two years growth in their fleece were the most vulnerable, while newly-shorn sheep in warm weather were rarely molested.[46]

Despite substantial anecdotal evidence of sheep attacks,[5][47] others remained unconvinced, especially in later years. For instance, in 1962, animal specialist J.R. Jackson concluded, while the bird may attack sick or injured sheep, especially if it mistook them for dead, it was not a significant predator.[48] In August 1992, however, its nocturnal assaults were captured on video,[8][49] proving that at least some kea will attack and feed on healthy sheep. The video confirmed what many scientists had long suspected: that the kea uses its powerful, curved beak and claws to rip through the layer of wool and eat the fat from the back of the animal. Though the bird does not directly kill the sheep, death can result from infections or accidents suffered by animals when trying to escape.

Since kea are now a protected species, their depredations are generally tolerated by sheep farmers, though why some kea attack sheep, and others do not, remains unclear. Various theories, including similarities with existing food sources, curiosity, entertainment, hunger, maggots as well as a progression from scavenging dead sheep and hides have all been put forward as to how the behaviour was first acquired.[47][49] Anecdotal evidence also suggests only particular birds have learned the behaviour, with identification and removal of those individuals being sufficient to control the problem.[49][30]

There are also anecdotal reports of kea attacking rabbits, dogs, and even horses.[47] There are also suggestions that kea used to feed on moa in a similar way.[49]

Relationship with humans

[edit]
Kea damaging a parked car
Kea investigating tourists

Kea, which are social, have been found to have a level of high cognitive ability, with the capacity to solve complex tasks.[50][51] This curiosity and urge to explore and investigate makes this bird both a pest for residents and an attraction for tourists. In 2017 the kea was voted New Zealand Bird of the Year in a campaign to raise awareness about the country's endangered wildlife.[52]

Called "the clown of the mountains",[52][53] it will investigate backpacks, boots, skis, snowboards, and even cars, often causing damage or flying off with smaller items.[54] Kea have been kept as pets before being protected, but rarely, since they were difficult to capture and destructive when in captivity.

People commonly encounter wild kea at South Island ski areas, where they are attracted by the prospect of food scraps. Their curiosity leads them to peck and carry away unguarded items of clothing, or to pry apart rubber parts of cars – to the entertainment and annoyance of human observers. They are often described as "cheeky". A kea has even been reported to have made off with the passport of a tourist who was visiting Fiordland National Park.[55]

The Department of Conservation also suggested that the time savings resulting from a more calorie-rich diet will give kea more free time to investigate and hence damage things at campsites and car parks.[56]

The birds' naturally trusting behaviour around humans has also been indicated as a contributing factor in a number of recent incidents at popular tourist spots where kea have been purposely killed.[57][58][59]

Kea were eaten by Māori. They were believed by the Waitaha tribe to be kaitiaki (guardians).[60]

Cultural references

[edit]

The kea featured on the reverse side of the New Zealand $10 note between 1967 and 1992, when it was replaced with the blue duck (whio).[61]

Kea are the protagonists in New Zealand author Philip Temple's novels Beak of the Moon (1981) and Dark of the Moon (1993), recounting respectively the first encounters of a group of kea with humans at the time of the colonisation of the South Island by Māori, and their life in present-day, human-dominated New Zealand. Sentient Kea also features as prominent characters in the Orson Scott Card novel The Last Shadow.

The youngest section of Scouts New Zealand (known as Beavers in the United Kingdom and Joeys in Australia) is named after the bird.[62]

In the video game Dwarf Fortress, kea are one of many species of animals that will steal the player's items.[63]

Threats

[edit]

Together with local councils and runholders, the New Zealand government paid a bounty for kea bills because the bird preyed upon livestock, mainly sheep.[47][64][30] It was intended that hunters would kill kea only on the farms and council areas that paid the bounty, but some hunted them in national parks and in Westland, where they were officially protected. More than 150,000 were killed in the hundred years before 1970, when the bounty was lifted.[65]

A study of kea numbers in Nelson Lakes National Park showed a substantial decline in the population between 1999 and 2009, caused primarily by predation of kea eggs and chicks.[66] Video cameras set up to monitor kea nests in South Westland showed that possums killed kea fledglings.[67]

Lead poisoning, mostly from the roofs of buildings/building materials, is also a significant cause of premature deaths among kea.[68][69] Research on lead toxicity in kea living at Aoraki / Mount Cook found that of 38 live kea tested all were found to have detectable blood lead levels, 26 considered dangerously high.[69] Additional analysis of 15 dead kea sent to Massey University for diagnostic pathology between 1991 and 1997 found 9 bodies to have lead blood levels consistent with causing death.[70] Research conducted by Victoria University in 2008 confirmed that the natural curiosity of kea which has enabled the species to adapt to its extreme environment, may increase its propensity to poisoning through ingestion of lead – i.e. the more investigative behaviours identified in a bird, the higher its blood lead levels were likely to be.[71]

The 1080 pesticide is used to control invasive pest mammals such as stoats and possums and has also been implicated in kea deaths. For example, seven kea were found dead following an aerial possum control operation using 1080, at Fox Glacier in July 2008[72] and a further seven had been found dead in August 2011, following a 1080 aerial possum control operation in Ōkārito Forest.[73] Traps are also considered a risk to kea. In September 2011, hidden cameras caught kea breaking into baited stoat traps in the Matukituki Valley. More than 75% of the traps had been sprung.[74]

Conservation

[edit]

In the 1970s, the kea received partial protection after a census counted only 5,000 birds. The government agreed to investigate any reports of problem birds and have them removed from the land.[75] In 1986 it was given absolute protection under the Wildlife Act 1953.[76] Kea are also listed under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) meaning international export/import (including parts and derivatives) is regulated.[2]

Despite being classified as Nationally Endangered in the New Zealand Threat Classification System[77] and endangered in the IUCN Red List and protected by law, kea are still deliberately shot. For example, in the late 1990s, a Fox Glacier resident killed 33 kea in the glacier car park[59] and in 2008, two kea were shot in Arthur's Pass and stapled to a sign.[57]

Kea deaths due to traffic have prompted the NZ Transport Agency to install signs to help raise awareness, and to encourage people to slow down if necessary.[78] In Fiordland National Park, there have been concerns that kea are particularly at risk from road traffic at the entrance to the Homer Tunnel. Kea have been regularly observed on the roadway, moving amongst vehicles waiting to pass through the one-way tunnel. People feeding the birds was one cause of the problem. In 2017, a gym for kea was built near the Homer tunnel entrance, in an attempt to lure the birds away from the road.[79]

A citizen science project called the "Kea Database" was launched in 2017 that allows for the recording of kea observations to an online database. If the recorded kea are banded, it is possible to match observations with individual named birds, enabling the monitoring of the habits and behaviour of individual kea.[80]

Some are calling for kea to be reintroduced into predator-free zones on the North Island. A former curator of Natural History at Whanganui Regional Museum, Dr Mike Dickison, told North & South magazine in the October 2018 issue that the birds would do well on Mount Ruapehu.[30]

Kea conservation is supported by the NGO Kea Conservation Trust, founded in 2006 to protect kea.[81]

The total kea population was estimated at between 1,000 and 5,000 individuals in 1986,[82] contrasting with another estimate of 15,000 birds in 1992.[38] The kea's widespread distribution at low density across inaccessible areas prevents accurate estimates.[75][83] Estimates published in 2017 suggest a population of between 3000 and 7000 individuals.[84]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ BirdLife International (2017). "Nestor notabilis". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017: e.T22684831A119243358. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T22684831A119243358.en. Retrieved 12 November 2021.
  2. ^ a b "Appendices | CITES". cites.org. Retrieved 14 January 2022.
  3. ^ Joseph, Leo; et al. (2012). "A revised nomenclature and classification for family-group taxa of parrots (Psittaciformes)" (PDF). Zootaxa. 3205: 26–40. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3205.1.2. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  4. ^ "Kea". www.doc.govt.nz. Retrieved 9 June 2024.
  5. ^ a b c Benham, W. B. (1906). "Notes on the Flesh-eating Propensity of the Kea (Nestor notabilis)". Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 39: 71–89.
  6. ^ keaconservation.co.nz Archived 9 October 2011 at the Wayback Machine: Kea Conservation Status.
  7. ^ Lindsey, T., Morris, R. (2000) Field Guide To New Zealand Wildlife. Auckland: Harper Collins. (ISBN 1-86950-300-7)
  8. ^ a b c nhnz.tv, Kea – Mountain Parrot, NHNZ, one hour documentary (1993).
  9. ^ O'Connor, Sarah-Jane (24 August 2014). "Sticky beak is New Zealand's tooled-up kea". Stuff. Retrieved 18 December 2023.
  10. ^ Gould, John (1856). "On two new species of birds (Nestor notabilis and Spatula variegata) from the collection of Walter Mantell, Esq". Proceedings of the Zoological Society of London: 94–95.
  11. ^ Simpson DP (1979). Cassell's Latin Dictionary (5th ed.). London: Cassell Ltd. p. 883. ISBN 0-304-52257-0.
  12. ^ Ngā manu – birds, Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Updated 1 March 2009. Retrieved 21 January 2010.
  13. ^ a b c Wright, T.F.; Schirtzinger E. E.; Matsumoto T.; Eberhard J. R.; Graves G. R.; Sanchez J. J.; Capelli S.; Muller H.; Scharpegge J.; Chambers G. K.; Fleischer R. C. (2008). "A Multilocus Molecular Phylogeny of the Parrots (Psittaciformes): Support for a Gondwanan Origin during the Cretaceous". Mol Biol Evol. 25 (10): 2141–2156. doi:10.1093/molbev/msn160. PMC 2727385. PMID 18653733.
  14. ^ a b c Grant-Mackie, E.J.; J.A. Grant-Mackie; W.M. Boon; G.K. Chambers (2003). "Evolution of New Zealand Parrots". NZ Science Teacher. 103.
  15. ^ Juniper, T., Parr, M. (1998) Parrots: A guide to parrots of the world. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press (ISBN 0-300-07453-0)
  16. ^ a b De Kloet, Rolf S.; De Kloet, Siwo R. (September 2005). "The evolution of the spindlin gene in birds: sequence analysis of an intron of the spindlin W and Z gene reveals four major divisions of the Psittaciformes". Mol. Phylogenet. Evol. 36 (3): 706–21. Bibcode:2005MolPE..36..706D. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2005.03.013. PMID 16099384.
  17. ^ Schweizer, M.; Seehausen O; Güntert M; Hertwig ST (2009). "The evolutionary diversification of parrots supports a taxon pulse model with multiple trans-oceanic dispersal events and local radiations". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 54 (3): 984–94. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2009.08.021. PMID 19699808. S2CID 1831016.
  18. ^ Brehm, A. E. (1900). Brehm's Tierleben: Die Vögel. 1900 (Vol. 5). Bibliographisches Institut.
  19. ^ Robertson, H., & Heather, B. (2001). Hand Guide to the Birds of New Zealand. Oxford University Press.
  20. ^ Hutton, F. W. (1871). Catalogue of the Birds of New Zealand with Diagnoses of the Species (Vol. 4). J. Hughes, printer.
  21. ^ CRC Handbook of Avian Body Masses by John B. Dunning Jr. (Editor). CRC Press (1992), ISBN 978-0-8493-4258-5.
  22. ^ Elliot, G., & Kemp, J. (2004). Effect of hunting and predation on kea, and a method of monitoring kea populations. Results of kea research on the St. Arnaud Range. DOC Science Internal Series, 181, 1–17.
  23. ^ Collar, N., E. de Juana, P. F. D. Boesman, and C. J. Sharpe (2020). Kea (Nestor notabilis), version 1.0. In Birds of the World (J. del Hoyo, A. Elliott, J. Sargatal, D. A. Christie, and E. de Juana, Editors). Cornell Lab of Ornithology, Ithaca, NY, USA.
  24. ^ a b Forshaw, Joseph M. (2006). Parrots of the World; an Identification Guide. Illustrated by Frank Knight. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-09251-6.
  25. ^ Bond, A. B.; Wilson, K. J.; Diamond, J. (1991). "Sexual Dimorphism in the Kea Nestor notabilis". Emu. 91 (1): 12–19. Bibcode:1991EmuAO..91...12B. doi:10.1071/MU9910012.
  26. ^ Heather, Barrie; Robertson, Hugh (2015). The Field Guide to the Birds of New Zealand.
  27. ^ Robertson, CJR; Hyvonen, P; Fraser, M; Pickard, CR (2007). Atlas of bird distribution in New Zealand. Wellington: The Ornithological Society of New Zealand.
  28. ^ Holdaway, R.N.; Worthy, T.H. (1993). "First North Island fossil record of kea, and morphological and morphometric comparison of kea and kaka" (PDF). Notornis. 40 (2): 95–108. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 November 2020. Retrieved 29 September 2011.
  29. ^ Nicholls, Jenny (15 September 2018). "A bold idea to save the kea". Noted. Archived from the original on 26 January 2019. Retrieved 8 May 2019.
  30. ^ a b c d Noted. "A bold idea to save the kea". Noted. Archived from the original on 26 January 2019. Retrieved 8 May 2019.
  31. ^ Jackson, J. R. (1962). "The life of the Kea". Canterbury Mountaineer. 31: 120–123.
  32. ^ a b Clark, C.M.H. (1970). "Observations on population, movements and food of the kea, Nestor notabilis" (PDF). Notornis. 17: 105–114. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 November 2020. Retrieved 29 September 2011.
  33. ^ Diamond, J.; Bond, A. (1989). "Note on the lasting responsiveness of a kea Nestor notabilis toward its mirror image" (PDF). Avicultural Magazine 95(2). pp. 92–94. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 October 2011.
  34. ^ Elliott, G.; Kemp, J. (1999), Conservation ecology of kea (Nestor notabilis), WWF New Zealand
  35. ^ Jackson, J. R. (1960). "Keas at Arthur's Pass" (PDF). Notornis. 9: 39–58. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. [permanent dead link‍]
  36. ^ Falla, RA; Sibson, RB; Turbot, EG (1966), A Field guide to the birds of New Zealand, Collins, London, ISBN 0-00-212022-4
  37. ^ a b Akers, Kate & Orr-Walker, Tamsin (April 2009). "Kea Factsheet" (PDF). Kea Conservation Trust. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2 June 2010.
  38. ^ a b Bond, A.; Diamond, J. (1992). "Population Estimates of kea in Arthur's Pass National Park". Notornis. 39: 151–160.
  39. ^ Schwing, Raoul; Weber, Stefan; Bugnyar, Thomas (2017). "Kea (Nestor notabilis) decide early when to wait in food exchange task". Journal of Comparative Psychology. 131 (4): 269–276. doi:10.1037/com0000086.
  40. ^ Miyata, Hiromitsu; Gajdon, Gyula K.; Huber, Ludwig; Fujita, Kazuo (2011). "How do keas (Nestor notabilis) solve artificial-fruit problems with multiple locks?". Animal Cognition. 14: 45–58. doi:10.1007/s10071-010-0342-9.
  41. ^ a b Nestor notabilis kea Animal Diversity
  42. ^ Christina Troup. Birds of open country – kea digging out a shearwater chick Archived 17 October 2012 at the Wayback Machine, Te Ara – the Encyclopedia of New Zealand, Ministry of Culture and Heritage. Updated 20 November 2009. Accessed 22 January 2010.
  43. ^ Gajdon, G.K.; Fijn, N.; Huber, L. (2006). "Limited spread of innovation in a wild parrot, the kea (Nestor notabilis)". Animal Cognition. 9 (3): 173–181. doi:10.1007/s10071-006-0018-7. PMID 16568276. S2CID 994622.
  44. ^ Kindy, David. "Bruce the Parrot Uses Tools to Survive Despite a Broken Beak". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 19 September 2021.
  45. ^ Wallace, Alfred (1889). Darwinism. London: Macmillan and Co. p. 75.
  46. ^ Potts, Thomas (1882) [from "Out in the Open," 1882]. "The Kea, or Mountain Parrot". In Reeves, William Pember (Minister of Education) (ed.). The New Zealand Reader. Wellington: Samuel Costall, Government Printer (published 1895). pp. 81–90 – via New Zealand Electronic Text Collection (NZETC).
  47. ^ a b c d Marriner, G. R. (1906). "Notes on the Natural History of the Kea, with Special Reference to its Reputed Sheep-killing Propensities". Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand. 39: 271–305.
  48. ^ Jackson, J.R. (1962). "Do kea attack sheep?" (PDF). Notornis. 10: 33–38. Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 February 2021. Retrieved 29 September 2011.
  49. ^ a b c d Temple, Philip (1994). "Kea: the feisty parrot". New Zealand Geographic. No. 24. Auckland (published October–December 1994). Retrieved 13 January 2019.
  50. ^ Huber, Ludwig; Gajdon, Gyula K. (1 October 2006). "Technical intelligence in animals: the kea model". Animal Cognition. 9 (4): 295–305. doi:10.1007/s10071-006-0033-8. ISSN 1435-9456.
  51. ^ Bastos, Amalia PM; Nelson, Ximena J; Taylor, Alex H (2022). "From the lab to the wild: how can captive studies aid the conservation of kea (Nestor notabilis)?". Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences. 45: 101131. doi:10.1016/j.cobeha.2022.101131. ISSN 2352-1546.
  52. ^ a b Coleman, Alistair (24 October 2017). "Kea named New Zealand's Bird of the Year". BBC News. Retrieved 9 June 2024.
  53. ^ "Clever clown of the mountains". University of Vienna – Faculty of Life Sciences, Department of Cognitive Biology. Archived from the original on 2 November 2011. Retrieved 28 October 2011.
  54. ^ Kea steals GoPro from hut on Kepler Track, ends up making stunning short film, Stuff, 4 February 2022. Retrieved 4 February 2022.
  55. ^ Cheeky parrot steals tourist's passport, ABC News, 30 May 2009. Retrieved 22 January 2010.
  56. ^ "DOC's work with kea". Department of Conservation.
  57. ^ a b "Arthurs Pass neighbours at odds". The Press. 2 February 2008. Retrieved 8 October 2011.
  58. ^ "Dead kea dumped at Arthur's Pass were shot". Department of Conservation media release.
  59. ^ a b "Human-kea conflict". Kea Conservation Trust website. Archived from the original on 19 September 2011.
  60. ^ Keane-Tuala, Kelly. "Ngā manu – birds – Bird's names". The Encyclopedia of New Zealand. Retrieved 12 May 2020.
  61. ^ "History of Banknotes (check series 4 and 5)". Reserve Bank of New Zealand.
  62. ^ "Keas". Scouts New Zealand.
  63. ^ "DF2014:Kea". The Dwarf Fortress Wiki. Retrieved 28 January 2019.
  64. ^ Marriner, G. R. (1907) Additional Notes on the Kea. Transactions of the Royal Society of New Zealand, 40, 534–537 and Plates XXXII-XXXIV.
  65. ^ Temple, P. (1996) The Book of the Kea. Auckland: Hodder Moa Beckett. (ISBN 0-340-600039)
  66. ^ Bloomberg, Simon (21 February 2009). "Possums take toll on kea at Nelson Lakes". The Nelson Mail. Retrieved 8 October 2011.
  67. ^ "Nest cameras catch attacks on keas". Fairfax New Zealand. NZPA. 18 November 2010. Retrieved 18 November 2010.
  68. ^ "Lead Poisoning". Kea Conservation Trust. Archived from the original on 1 September 2010. Retrieved 8 October 2011.
  69. ^ a b McLelland, J.M.; et al. (April 1996). "Kea (Nestor notabilis) Captive Management Plan and Husbandry Manual" (PDF). Threatened Species Occasional Publication No. 9. Department of Conservation. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 8 October 2011.
  70. ^ Youl, Jennifer (2009). "Lead exposure in free-ranging Kea (Nestor Notabilis), Takahe (Porphyrio Hochstetteri) and Australasian Harriers (Circus Approximans) in New Zealand" (PDF). Massey University. Retrieved 8 October 2011.
  71. ^ "Curiosity kills the kea, study shows". The Dominion Post. 22 April 2009. Retrieved 8 October 2011.
  72. ^ "DOC reviews 1080 use after endangered kea die". The Dominion Post. 30 July 2008. Retrieved 8 October 2011.
  73. ^ "Seven keas dead in wake of 1080 work". Otago Daily Times. 12 September 2011. Retrieved 8 October 2011.
  74. ^ Ibbotson, Lucy (20 September 2011). "Kea 'gangs' breaking into Doc predator control traps". Otago Daily Times. Retrieved 8 October 2011.
  75. ^ a b Diamond, J., Bond, A. (1999) Kea. Bird of paradox. The evolution and behavior of a New Zealand Parrot. Berkeley; Los Angeles, CA: University of California Press. (ISBN 0-520-21339-4)
  76. ^ "Wildlife Act 1953". New Zealand Legislation. Parliamentary Counsel Office. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
  77. ^ Hitchmough, Rod; Bull, Leigh; Cromarty, Pam (2007). New Zealand Threat Classification System lists 2005 (PDF). Wellington: Department of Conservation. ISBN 978-0-478-14128-3. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
  78. ^ "Drivers urged to slow down for kea". DOC.govt.nz. New Zealand Department of Conservation. 25 August 2017. Retrieved 21 September 2017.
  79. ^ Nicoll, Dave (9 January 2018). "Roadcone-moving kea get gym to distract them away from traffic". Stuff. Retrieved 29 May 2022.
  80. ^ "Kea Database". keadatabase.nz. Retrieved 21 September 2017.
  81. ^ "Kea|Nestor Notabilis|Kea Conservation Trust NZ". Kea Conservation Trust. Retrieved 3 September 2020.
  82. ^ Anderson, R (1986). "Keas for keeps". Forest and Bird. 17: 2–5.
  83. ^ Elliott, G., Kemp, J. (1999). Conservation ecology of Kea (Nestor notabilis) Archived 13 May 2010 at the Wayback Machine. Report. WWF New Zealand.
  84. ^ "Kea". DOC.govt.nz. New Zealand Department of Conservation. Retrieved 21 September 2017.
[edit]
Wikispecies has information related to Nestor notabilis.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nestor notabilis.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kea&oldid=1257898998"