Jump to content

Anhedonia

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Motivational anhedonia)

For other uses, see Anhedonia (disambiguation).

Anhedonia
Melancholia, by Tadeusz Pruszkowski
Pronunciation
SpecialtyPsychiatry
SymptomsReduced motivation and ability to experience pleasure, particularly from previously enjoyable activities

Anhedonia is a diverse array of deficits in hedonic function, including reduced motivation or ability to experience pleasure.[1] While earlier definitions emphasized the inability to experience pleasure, anhedonia is currently used by researchers to refer to reduced motivation, reduced anticipatory pleasure (wanting), reduced consummatory pleasure (liking), and deficits in reinforcement learning.[2][3][4] In the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), anhedonia is a component of depressive disorders, substance-related disorders, psychotic disorders, and personality disorders, where it is defined by either a reduced ability to experience pleasure, or a diminished interest in engaging in previously pleasurable activities.[5][6] While the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Tenth Revision (ICD-10) does not explicitly mention anhedonia, the depressive symptom analogous to anhedonia as described in the DSM-5 is a loss of interest or pleasure.[3]

Definition

[edit]

While anhedonia was originally defined in 1896 by Théodule-Armand Ribot as the reduced ability to experience pleasure, it has been used to refer to deficits in multiple facets of reward. Re-conceptualizations of anhedonia highlight the independence of "wanting" and "liking". "Wanting" is a component of anticipatory positive affect, mediating both the motivation (i.e. incentive salience) to engage with reward, as well as the positive emotions associated with anticipating a reward. "Liking", on the other hand, is associated with the pleasure derived from consuming a reward.[2][1] The consciousness of reward-related processes has also been used to categorize reward in the context of anhedonia, as studies comparing implicit behavior versus explicit self-reports demonstrate a dissociation of the two.[7] Learning has also been proposed as an independent facet of reward that may be impaired in conditions associated with anhedonia, but empirical evidence dissociating learning from either "liking" or "wanting" is lacking.[7]

Anhedonia has also been used to refer to "affective blunting", "restricted range of affect", "emotional numbing", and "flat affect", particularly in the context of post-traumatic stress disorders. In PTSD patients, scales measuring these symptoms correlate strongly with scales that measure more traditional aspects of anhedonia, supporting this association.[2]

Causes

[edit]

Studies in clinical populations, healthy populations, and animal models have implicated a number of neurobiological substrates in anhedonia. Regions implicated in anhedonia include the prefrontal cortex as a whole, particularly the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), the striatum, amygdala, anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), hypothalamus, and ventral tegmental area (VTA).[5][3] Neuroimaging studies in humans have reported that deficits in consummatory aspects of reward are associated with abnormalities in the ventral striatum and medial prefrontal cortex, while deficits in anticipatory aspects of reward are related to abnormalities in hippocampal, dorsal ACC and prefrontal regions. These abnormalities are generally consistent with animal models, except for inconsistent findings with regard to the OFC. This inconsistency may be related to the difficulty in imaging the OFC due to its anatomical location, or the small number of studies performed on anhedonia;[8] a number of studies have reported reduced activity in the OFC in schizophrenia and major depression, as well as a direct relationship between reduced activity and anhedonia.[9] Researchers theorize that anhedonia may result from the breakdown in the brain's reward system, involving the neurotransmitter dopamine. Anhedonia can be characterised as "impaired ability to pursue, experience and/or learn about pleasure, which is often, but not always accessible to conscious awareness".[10]

The conditions of akinetic mutism and negative symptoms are closely related. In akinetic mutism, a stroke or other lesion to the anterior cingulate cortex causes reduction in movement (akinetic) and speech (mutism).[11]

Occurrence

[edit]

Major depressive disorder

[edit]

Anhedonia occurs in roughly 70% of people with a major depressive disorder.[2] Anhedonia is a core symptom of major depressive disorder; therefore, individuals experiencing this symptom can be diagnosed with depression, even in the absence of low/depressed mood.[12] The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) describes a "lack of interest or pleasure", but these can be difficult to discern given that people tend to become less interested in things which do not give them pleasure. The DSM criterion of weight loss is probably related, and many individuals with this symptom describe a lack of enjoyment of food. They can portray any of the non-psychotic symptoms and signs of depression.[13]

Schizophrenia

[edit]

Anhedonia is one of the negative symptoms of schizophrenia.[2] Although five domains are usually used to classify negative symptoms, factor analysis of questionnaires yield two factors, with one including deficits in pleasure and motivation. People with schizophrenia retrospectively report experiencing fewer positive emotions than healthy individuals. However, "liking" or consummatory pleasure, is intact in people with schizophrenia, as they report experiencing the same degree of positive affect when presented with rewarding stimuli. Neuroimaging studies support this behavioral observation, as most studies report intact responses in the reward system (i.e. ventral striatum, VTA) to simple rewards. However, studies on monetary rewards sometimes report reduced responsiveness. More consistent reductions are observed with regard to emotional response during reward anticipation, which is reflected in a reduced responsiveness of both cortical and subcortical components of the reward system.[14] Schizophrenia is associated with reduced positive prediction errors (a normal pattern of response to an unexpected reward), which a few studies have demonstrated to be correlated with negative symptoms. People with schizophrenia demonstrate impairment in reinforcement learnings tasks only when the task requires explicit learning, or is sufficiently complex. Implicit reinforcement learning, on the other hand, is relatively intact. These deficits may be related to dysfunction in the ACC, OFC and dlPFC leading to abnormal representation of reward and goals.[15]

[edit]

Anhedonia is common in people who are dependent upon any one or more of a wide variety of drugs, including alcohol, opioids, cannabinoids, and nicotine. Although anhedonia becomes less severe over time, it is a significant predictor of relapse.[16]

Post-traumatic stress disorder

[edit]

While PTSD is associated with reduced motivation, part of the anticipatory "wanting", it is also associated with elevated sensation seeking, and no deficits in physiological arousal, or self reported pleasure to positive stimuli.[17] PTSD is also associated with blunted affect, which may be due to the high comorbidity with depression.[2]

Parkinson's disease

[edit]

Anhedonia occurs frequently in Parkinson's disease, with rates between 7%–45% being reported. Whether or not anhedonia is related to the high rates of depression in Parkinson's disease is unknown.[18]

Bipolar depression

[edit]

Anhedonia is also reported to appear in people with bipolar depression.[19]

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

[edit]

Anhedonia may be associated with ADHD. Impairments of dopaminergic and serotonergic function in the brain of those with ADHD result in dysregulation of reward processing which can lead to anhedonia.[20]

Sexual anhedonia

[edit]
Main article: Sexual anhedonia

Sexual anhedonia in males is also known as 'ejaculatory anhedonia'. This condition means that a male will ejaculate with no accompanying sense of pleasure.[21]

The condition is most frequently found in males, but females can experience lack of pleasure when the body goes through the orgasm process as well.

Sexual anhedonia may be caused by:

It is very uncommon that a neurological examination and blood tests can determine the cause of a specific case of sexual anhedonia.

Patients may be prescribed sustained-release bupropion to aid in treatment, which has been shown to relieve sexual dysfunction even in patients without depression.[25]

Social anhedonia

[edit]
See also: Asociality and Emotional detachment

Definition

[edit]

Social anhedonia is defined as a disinterest in social contact and a lack of pleasure in social situations, and is characterized by social withdrawal. This characteristic typically manifests as an indifference to other people.[26] In contrast to introversion, a nonpathological dimension of human personality, social anhedonia represents a deficit in the ability to experience pleasure.[27] Additionally, social anhedonia differs from social anxiety in that social anhedonia is predominantly typified by diminished positive affect, while social anxiety is distinguished by both decreased positive affect and exaggerated negative affect.[28]

This trait is currently seen as a central characteristic, as well as a predictor, of schizophrenia spectrum disorders.[29] It is also widely linked to autism spectrum disorder.[30]

Signs and symptoms

[edit]
  • Decreased ability to experience interpersonal pleasure
  • Social withdrawal/isolation
  • Decreased capacity for social contact and interaction
  • Lack of close friends and intimate relationships, and decreased quality of those relationships
  • Poor social adjustment
  • Decreased positive affect
  • Flat affect
  • Depressed mood
  • State-related anxiety[29][31]

Background and early clinical observation

[edit]

The term anhedonia is derived from the Greek an-, "without" and hēdonē, "pleasure".[32] Interest in the nature of pleasure and its absence dates back to ancient Greek philosophers such as Epicurus.[3] The symptoms of anhedonia were introduced to the realm of psychopathology in 1809 by John Haslam, who characterized a patient with schizophrenia as indifferent to "those objects and pursuits which formerly proved sources of delight and instruction".[33] The concept was formally coined by Théodule-Armand Ribot and later used by psychiatrists Paul Eugen Bleuler and Emil Kraepelin to describe a core symptom of schizophrenia.[3] In particular, Sandor Rado postulated that schizotypes, or individuals with the schizophrenic phenotype, have two key genetic deficits, one related to the ability to feel pleasure (anhedonia) and one related to proprioception. In 1962, Meehl furthered Rado's theory through the introduction of the concept of schizotaxia, a genetically driven neural integrative defect thought to give rise to the personality type of schizotypy.[34] Loren and Jean Chapman further distinguished between two types of anhedonia: physical anhedonia, or a deficit in the ability to experience physical pleasure, and social, or a deficit in the ability to experience interpersonal pleasure.[35]

Recent research suggests that social anhedonia may represent a prodrome of psychotic disorders.[26][27][36] First-degree relatives of individuals with schizophrenia show elevated levels of social anhedonia,[37] higher baseline scores of social anhedonia are associated with later development of schizophrenia.[38] These findings provide support for the conjecture that it represents a genetic risk marker for schizophrenia-spectrum disorders.

Additionally, elevated levels of social anhedonia in patients with schizophrenia have been linked to poorer social functioning.[39][40] Socially anhedonic individuals perform worse on a number of neuropsychological tests than non-anhedonic participants,[41][42] and show similar physiological abnormalities seen in patients with schizophrenia.[42]

Comorbidity

[edit]

Anhedonia is present in several forms of psychopathology[43] as well as autism spectrum disorder.[30]

Depression

[edit]

Social anhedonia is observed in both depression and schizophrenia. However, social anhedonia is a state related to the depressive episode and the other is a trait related to the personality construct associated with schizophrenia. These individuals both tend to score highly on self-report measures of social anhedonia. Blanchard, Horan, and Brown demonstrated that, although both the depression and the schizophrenia patient groups can look very similar in terms of social anhedonia cross-sectionally, over time as individuals with depression experience symptom remission, they show fewer signs of social anhedonia, while individuals with schizophrenia do not.[44] Blanchard and colleagues (2011) found individuals with social anhedonia also had elevated rates of lifetime mood disorders including depression and dysthymia compared to controls.[45]

Social anxiety

[edit]

As mentioned above, social anxiety and social anhedonia differ in important ways.[28] However, social anhedonia and social anxiety are also often comorbid. People with social anhedonia may display increased social anxiety and be at increased risk for social phobias and generalized anxiety disorder.[46] It has yet to be determined what the exact relationship between social anhedonia and social anxiety is, and if one potentiates the other.[47] Individuals with social anhedonia may display increased stress reactivity, meaning that they feel more overwhelmed or helpless in response to a stressful event compared to control subjects who experience the same type of stressor. This dysfunctional stress reactivity may correlate with hedonic capacity, providing a potential explanation for the increased anxiety symptoms experienced in people with social anhedonia.[48] In an attempt to separate out social anhedonia from social anxiety, the Revised Social Anhedonia Scale[49] didn't include items that potentially targeted social anxiety.[29] However, more research must be conducted on the underlying mechanisms through which social anhedonia overlaps and interacts with social anxiety. The efforts of the "social processes" RDoC initiative will be crucial in differentiating between these components of social behavior that may underlie mental illnesses such as schizophrenia.

Primary relevance in schizophrenia and schizophrenia spectrum disorders

[edit]

Social anhedonia is a core characteristic of schizotypy, which is defined as a continuum of personality traits that can range from normal to disordered and contributes to risk for psychosis and schizophrenia.[50] Social anhedonia is a dimension of both negative and positive schizotypy.[51] It involves social and interpersonal deficits, but is also associated with cognitive slippage and disorganized speech, both of which fall into the category of positive schizotypy.[52][53][54] Not all people with schizophrenia display social anhedonia[55] and likewise, people who have social anhedonia may never be diagnosed with a schizophrenia-spectrum disorder if they do not have the positive and cognitive symptoms that are most frequently associated with most schizophrenia-spectrum disorders.[56]

Social anhedonia may be a valid predictor of future schizophrenia-spectrum disorders;[46][56] young adults with social anhedonia perform in a similar direction to schizophrenia patients in tests of cognition and social behavior, showing potential predictive validity.[38][52] Social anhedonia usually manifests in adolescence, possibly because of a combination of the occurrence of critical neuronal development and synaptic pruning of brain regions important for social behavior and environmental changes, when adolescents are in the process of becoming individuals and gaining more independence.

Treatment

[edit]

There is no validated treatment for social anhedonia.[47] Future research should focus on genetic and environmental risk factors to home in on specific brain regions and neurotransmitters that may be implicated in social anhedonia's cause and could be targeted with medication or behavioral treatments. Social support may also play a valuable role in the treatment of social anhedonia. Blanchard et al.[45] found that a greater number of social supports, as well as a greater perceived social support network, were related to fewer schizophrenia-spectrum symptoms and to better general functioning within the social anhedonia group. So far, no medicine has been developed to specifically target anhedonia.

Sex differences

[edit]

In the general population, males score higher than females on measures of social anhedonia.[57] This sex difference is stable throughout time (from adolescence into adulthood) and is also seen in people with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders. These results may reflect a more broad pattern of interpersonal and social deficits seen in schizophrenia-spectrum disorders.[58] On average, males with schizophrenia are diagnosed at a younger age, have more severe symptoms, worse treatment prognosis, and a decrease in overall quality of life compared to females with the disorder.[59] These results, coupled with the sex difference seen in social anhedonia, outline the necessity for research on genetic and hormonal characteristics that differ between males and females, and that may increase risk or resilience for mental illnesses such as schizophrenia.[60]

Assessing social anhedonia

[edit]

There are several self-report psychometric measures of schizotypy which each contain subscales related to social anhedonia:

Genetic components

[edit]

L.J. and J.P. Chapman were the first to discuss the possibility that social anhedonia may stem from a genetic vulnerability.[55] The disrupted in schizophrenia 1 (DISC1) gene has been consistently associated with risk for, and cause of, schizophrenia-spectrum disorders and other mental illnesses.[63] More recently, DISC1 has been associated with social anhedonia within the general population.[64] Tomppo identified a specific DISC1 allele that is associated with an increase in characteristics of social anhedonia. They also identified a DISC1 allele associated with decreased characteristics of social anhedonia, that was found to be preferentially expressed in women. More research needs to be conducted, but social anhedonia may be an important intermediate phenotype (endophenotype) between genes associated with risk for schizophrenia and phenotype of the disorder.[65]

Neurobiological correlates

[edit]

Researchers studying the neurobiology of social anhedonia posit that this trait may be linked to dysfunction of reward-related systems in the brain. This circuitry is critical for the sensation of pleasure, the computation of reward benefits and costs, determination of the effort required to obtain a pleasant stimulus, deciding to obtain that stimulus, and increasing motivation to obtain the stimulus. In particular, the ventral striatum and areas of the prefrontal cortex (PFC), including the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and dorsolateral (dl) PFC, are critically involved in the experience of pleasure and the hedonic perception of rewards. With regards to neurotransmitter systems, opioid, gamma-Aminobutyric acid and endocannabinoid systems in the nucleus accumbens, ventral pallidum, and OFC mediate the hedonic perception of rewards.[3] Activity in the PFC and ventral striatum have been found to be decreased in anhedonic individuals with major depressive disorder (MDD) and schizophrenia. However, schizophrenia may be less associated with decreased hedonic capacity and more with deficient reward appraisal.[66][67]

Specific musical anhedonia

[edit]
Main article: Musical anhedonia

Recent studies have found people who do not have any issue processing musical tones or beat, yet receive no pleasure from listening to music.[68] Specific musical anhedonia is distinct from melophobia, the fear of music.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Rizvi SJ, Pizzagalli DA, Sproule BA, Kennedy SH (June 2016). "Assessing anhedonia in depression: Potentials and pitfalls". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 65: 21–35. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.03.004. PMC 4856554. PMID 26959336.
  2. ^ a b c d e f Shankman S, Katz A, DeLizza A, Sarapas C, Gorka S, Campbell M (2014). "The Different Facets of Anhedonia and Their Associations with Different Psychopathologies". In Ritsner M (ed.). Anhedonia : a comprehensive handbook. Dordrecht: Springer Netherlands. p. 3. ISBN 978-94-017-8590-7. However, there are two components to the positive affect experienced in rewarding situations - anticipatory positive affect (APA) and cunsummatory positive affect (CPA)...Berridge and Robinson [2] describe these constructs as 'wanting' and 'liking', respectively.
  3. ^ a b c d e f Der-Avakian A, Markou A (January 2012). "The neurobiology of anhedonia and other reward-related deficits". Trends in Neurosciences. 35 (1): 68–77. doi:10.1016/j.tins.2011.11.005. PMC 3253139. PMID 22177980.
  4. ^ Treadway MT, Zald DH (January 2011). "Reconsidering anhedonia in depression: lessons from translational neuroscience". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 35 (3): 537–55. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.06.006. PMC 3005986. PMID 20603146.
  5. ^ a b Rømer Thomsen K, Whybrow PC, Kringelbach ML (2015). "Reconceptualizing anhedonia: novel perspectives on balancing the pleasure networks in the human brain". Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience. 9: 49. doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2015.00049. PMC 4356228. PMID 25814941.
  6. ^ American Psychiatric Association (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders : DSM-5 (5th ed.). Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Association. pp. 126, 202, 259, 350, 569, 582, 598, 603, 793, 800, 806, 842. ISBN 978-0-89042-554-1.
  7. ^ a b Thomsen KR (2015). "Measuring anhedonia: impaired ability to pursue, experience, and learn about reward". Frontiers in Psychology. 6: 1409. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01409. PMC 4585007. PMID 26441781.
  8. ^ Zhang B, Lin P, Shi H, Öngür D, Auerbach RP, Wang X, et al. (September 2016). "Mapping anhedonia-specific dysfunction in a transdiagnostic approach: an ALE meta-analysis". Brain Imaging and Behavior. 10 (3): 920–39. doi:10.1007/s11682-015-9457-6. PMC 4838562. PMID 26487590.
  9. ^ Preda A (2014). "Brain Imaging Correlates of Anhedonia". In Ritsner M (ed.). Anhedonia: A Comprehensive Handbook Volume I: Conceptual Issues And Neurobiological Advances. Springer. ISBN 978-94-017-8590-7.
  10. ^ Thomsen KR (17 September 2015). "Measuring anhedonia: impaired ability to pursue, experience, and learn about reward". Frontiers in Psychology. 6: 1409. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2015.01409. PMC 4585007. PMID 26441781.
  11. ^ Tekin S, Cummings JL (August 2002). "Frontal-subcortical neuronal circuits and clinical neuropsychiatry: an update". Journal of Psychosomatic Research. 53 (2): 647–54. doi:10.1016/S0022-3999(02)00428-2. PMID 12169339.
  12. ^ American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5. Washington, D.C: American Psychiatric Association.
  13. ^ Tomb DA (2007). Psychiatry. Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-7817-7452-9.
  14. ^ Kring AM, Barch DM (May 2014). "The motivation and pleasure dimension of negative symptoms: neural substrates and behavioral outputs". European Neuropsychopharmacology. 24 (5): 725–36. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2013.06.007. PMC 4020953. PMID 24461724.
  15. ^ Barch DM, Pagliaccio D, Luking K (2016). "Mechanisms Underlying Motivational Deficits in Psychopathology: Similarities and Differences in Depression and Schizophrenia". Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences. 27: 411–49. doi:10.1007/7854_2015_376. ISBN 978-3-319-26933-7. PMID 26026289.
  16. ^ Garfield JB, Lubman DI, Yücel M (January 2014). "Anhedonia in substance use disorders: a systematic review of its nature, course and clinical correlates". The Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry. 48 (1): 36–51. doi:10.1177/0004867413508455. PMID 24270310. S2CID 5509985.
  17. ^ Nawijn L, van Zuiden M, Frijling JL, Koch SB, Veltman DJ, Olff M (April 2015). "Reward functioning in PTSD: a systematic review exploring the mechanisms underlying anhedonia". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 51: 189–204. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2015.01.019. PMID 25639225. S2CID 24604303.
  18. ^ Loas G, Krystkowiak P, Godefroy O (2012). "Anhedonia in Parkinson's disease: an overview". The Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences. 24 (4): 444–51. doi:10.1176/appi.neuropsych.11110332. PMID 23224450.
  19. ^ Gałuszko-Węgielnik M, Wiglusz MS, Słupski J, Szałach Ł, Włodarczk A, Górska N, et al. (2019). "Efficacy of Ketamine in bipolar depression: focus on anhedonia". Psychiatria Danubina. 31 (Suppl 3): 554–560. PMID 31488790.
  20. ^ Sternat T, Fotinos K, Fine A, Epstein I, Katzman MA (17 September 2018). "Low hedonic tone and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder: risk factors for treatment resistance in depressed adults". Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment. 14: 2379–2387. doi:10.2147/NDT.S170645. PMC 6149933. PMID 30271154.
  21. ^ Gray M, Zillioux J, Khourdaji I, Smith RP (August 2018). "Contemporary management of ejaculatory dysfunction". Translational Andrology and Urology. 7 (4): 686–702. doi:10.21037/tau.2018.06.20. PMC 6127532. PMID 30211060.
  22. ^ Csoka AB, Csoka A, Bahrick A, Mehtonen OP (January 2008). "Persistent sexual dysfunction after discontinuation of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors". The Journal of Sexual Medicine. 5 (1): 227–33. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2007.00630.x. PMID 18173768.
  23. ^ Tupala E, Haapalinna A, Viitamaa T, Männistö PT, Saano V (June 1999). "Effects of repeated low dose administration and withdrawal of haloperidol on sexual behaviour of male rats". Pharmacology & Toxicology. 84 (6): 292–5. doi:10.1111/j.1600-0773.1999.tb01497.x. PMID 10401732.
  24. ^ Martin-Du Pan R (1978). "[Neuroleptics and sexual dysfunction in man. Neuroendocrine aspects]". Schweizer Archiv für Neurologie, Neurochirurgie und Psychiatrie = Archives Suisses de Neurologie, Neurochirurgie et de Psychiatrie. 122 (2): 285–313. PMID 29337.
  25. ^ Crenshaw TL, Goldberg JP, Stern WC (1987). "Pharmacologic modification of psychosexual dysfunction". Journal of Sex & Marital Therapy. 13 (4): 239–52. doi:10.1080/00926238708403896. PMID 3121861.
  26. ^ a b Blanchard JJ, Gangestad SW, Brown SA, Horan WP (February 2000). "Hedonic capacity and schizotypy revisited: a taxometric analysis of social anhedonia". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 109 (1): 87–95. doi:10.1037/0021-843x.109.1.87. PMID 10740939.
  27. ^ a b Silvia PJ, Kwapil TR (December 2011). "Aberrant asociality: how individual differences in social anhedonia illuminate the need to belong" (PDF). Journal of Personality. 79 (6): 1315–32. doi:10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00702.x. PMID 21480908.
  28. ^ a b Brown LH, Silvia PJ, Myin-Germeys I, Lewandowski KE, Kwapil TR (2008). "The relationship of social anxiety and social anhedonia to psychometrically identified schizotypy". Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology. 27 (2): 127–49. doi:10.1521/jscp.2008.27.2.127. S2CID 4638662.
  29. ^ a b c Kwapil TR (November 1998). "Social anhedonia as a predictor of the development of schizophrenia-spectrum disorders" (PDF). Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 107 (4): 558–65. doi:10.1037/0021-843x.107.4.558. PMID 9830243.
  30. ^ a b Gadow KD, Garman HD (2020). "Social Anhedonia in Children and Adolescents with Autism Spectrum Disorder and Psychiatry Referrals". Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology. 49 (2): 239–250. doi:10.1080/15374416.2018.1514611. ISSN 1537-4424. PMID 30412420. S2CID 53248671.
  31. ^ Mishlove M, Chapman LJ (August 1985). "Social anhedonia in the prediction of psychosis proneness". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 94 (3): 384–96. doi:10.1037/0021-843x.94.3.384. PMID 4031235.
  32. ^ Di Giannantonio M, Martinotti G (2012). "Anhedonia and major depression: the role of agomelatine". European Neuropsychopharmacology. 22 (Suppl 3): S505–10. doi:10.1016/j.euroneuro.2012.07.004. PMID 22959116. S2CID 31970160.
  33. ^ Noll R (1959). The encyclopedia of schizophrenia and other psychotic disorders. New York: Facts on File.
  34. ^ Meehl PE (October 1989). "Schizotaxia revisited". Archives of General Psychiatry. 46 (10): 935–44. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1989.01810100077015. PMID 2552952.
  35. ^ Kontaxakis VP, Kollias CT, Havaki-Kontaxaki BJ, Margariti MM, Stamouli SS, Petridou E, et al. (January 2006). "Physical anhedonia in the acute phase of schizophrenia". Annals of General Psychiatry. 5: 1. doi:10.1186/1744-859X-5-1. PMC 1360074. PMID 16417645.
  36. ^ Mann MC (2006). Verbal and Nonverbal Expressions as Indicators of Social and Emotional Functioning among Social Anhedonics (Thesis). hdl:1903/3594. Master's Thesis. University of Maryland, College Park. College Park, MD.
  37. ^ Cohen AS, Emmerson LC, Mann MC, Forbes CB, Blanchard JJ (June 2010). "Schizotypal, schizoid and paranoid characteristics in the biological parents of social anhedonics". Psychiatry Research. 178 (1): 79–83. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2008.07.018. PMC 2914210. PMID 20452676.
  38. ^ a b Gooding DC, Tallent KA, Matts CW (February 2005). "Clinical status of at-risk individuals 5 years later: further validation of the psychometric high-risk strategy". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 114 (1): 170–75. doi:10.1037/0021-843x.114.1.170. PMID 15709824.
  39. ^ Blanchard JJ, Mueser KT, Bellack AS (1998). "Anhedonia, positive and negative affect, and social functioning in schizophrenia". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 24 (3): 413–24. doi:10.1093/oxfordjournals.schbul.a033336. PMID 9718633.
  40. ^ Blanchard JJ, Bellack AS, Mueser KT (November 1994). "Affective and social-behavioral correlates of physical and social anhedonia in schizophrenia". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 103 (4): 719–28. doi:10.1037/0021-843x.103.4.719. PMID 7822573.
  41. ^ Laurent A, Biloa-Tang M, Bougerol T, Duly D, Anchisi AM, Bosson JL, et al. (December 2000). "Executive/attentional performance and measures of schizotypy in patients with schizophrenia and in their nonpsychotic first-degree relatives". Schizophrenia Research. 46 (2–3): 269–83. doi:10.1016/s0920-9964(99)00232-7. PMID 11120438. S2CID 30892673.
  42. ^ a b Cohen AS, Leung WW, Saperstein AM, Blanchard JJ (July 2006). "Neuropsychological functioning and social anhedonia: results from a community high-risk study". Schizophrenia Research. 85 (1–3): 132–41. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2006.03.044. PMID 16730428. S2CID 1217377.
  43. ^ American Psychiatric Association: Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Text Revision. (2000). Washington, DC, American Psychiatric Association.
  44. ^ Blanchard JJ, Horan WP, Brown SA (August 2001). "Diagnostic differences in social anhedonia: a longitudinal study of schizophrenia and major depressive disorder". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 110 (3): 363–71. doi:10.1037/0021-843x.110.3.363. PMID 11502079.
  45. ^ a b Blanchard JJ, Collins LM, Aghevli M, Leung WW, Cohen AS (May 2011). "Social anhedonia and schizotypy in a community sample: the Maryland longitudinal study of schizotypy". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 37 (3): 587–602. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbp107. PMC 3080671. PMID 19850669.
  46. ^ a b Rey G, Jouvent R, Dubal S (July 2009). "Schizotypy, depression, and anxiety in physical and social anhedonia". Journal of Clinical Psychology. 65 (7): 695–708. doi:10.1002/jclp.20577. PMID 19388058.
  47. ^ a b Horan WP, Kring AM, Blanchard JJ (April 2006). "Anhedonia in schizophrenia: a review of assessment strategies". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 32 (2): 259–73. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbj009. PMC 2632206. PMID 16221997.
  48. ^ Horan WP, Brown SA, Blanchard JJ (January 2007). "Social anhedonia and schizotypy: the contribution of individual differences in affective traits, stress, and coping". Psychiatry Research. 149 (1–3): 147–56. doi:10.1016/j.psychres.2006.06.002. PMID 17109970. S2CID 19360803.
  49. ^ a b Eckblad, M.L., Chapman, L.J., Chapman, J.P., & Mishlove, M. (1982). The Revised Social Anhedonia Scale Archived 10 June 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Unpublished test
  50. ^ Meehl PE (1962). "Schizotaxia, schizotypy, schizophrenia". The American Psychologist. 17 (12): 827–38. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.462.2509. doi:10.1037/h0041029.
  51. ^ Kwapil TR, Barrantes-Vidal N, Silvia PJ (May 2008). "The dimensional structure of the Wisconsin Schizotypy Scales: factor identification and construct validity". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 34 (3): 444–57. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbm098. PMC 2632435. PMID 17768308.
  52. ^ a b Gooding DC, Tallent KA, Hegyi JV (November 2001). "Cognitive slippage in schizotypic individuals". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 189 (11): 750–56. doi:10.1097/00005053-200111000-00004. PMID 11758658. S2CID 41424766.
  53. ^ Kerns JG (August 2006). "Schizotypy facets, cognitive control, and emotion". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 115 (3): 418–27. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.334.7113. doi:10.1037/0021-843X.115.3.418. PMID 16866583.
  54. ^ Collins LM, Blanchard JJ, Biondo KM (October 2005). "Behavioral signs of schizoidia and schizotypy in social anhedonics". Schizophrenia Research. 78 (2–3): 309–22. doi:10.1016/j.schres.2005.04.021. PMID 15950438. S2CID 36987880.
  55. ^ a b c Chapman LJ, Chapman JP, Raulin ML (August 1976). "Scales for physical and social anhedonia". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 85 (4): 374–82. doi:10.1037/0021-843x.85.4.374. PMID 956504.
  56. ^ a b Chapman LJ, Chapman JP, Kwapil TR, Eckblad M, Zinser MC (May 1994). "Putatively psychosis-prone subjects 10 years later". Journal of Abnormal Psychology. 103 (2): 171–83. doi:10.1037/0021-843x.103.2.171. PMID 8040487.
  57. ^ Fonseca-Pedrero E, Lemos-Giráldez S, Muñiz J, García-Cueto E, Campillo-Alvarez A (February 2008). "Schizotypy in adolescence: the role of gender and age". The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease. 196 (2): 161–65. doi:10.1097/nmd.0b013e318162aa79. PMID 18277226. S2CID 35632524.
  58. ^ Miettunen J, Jääskeläinen E (March 2010). "Sex differences in Wisconsin Schizotypy Scales--a meta-analysis". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 36 (2): 347–58. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbn075. PMC 2833110. PMID 18644855.
  59. ^ Leung A, Chue P (2000). "Sex differences in schizophrenia, a review of the literature". Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica. Supplementum. 101 (401): 3–38. doi:10.1111/j.0065-1591.2000.0ap25.x. PMID 10887978. S2CID 221392122.
  60. ^ Jessen HM, Auger AP (July 2011). "Sex differences in epigenetic mechanisms may underlie risk and resilience for mental health disorders". Epigenetics. 6 (7): 857–61. doi:10.4161/epi.6.7.16517. PMC 3154426. PMID 21617370.
  61. ^ Raine A (1991). "The SPQ: a scale for the assessment of schizotypal personality based on DSM-III-R criteria". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 17 (4): 555–64. doi:10.1093/schbul/17.4.555. PMID 1805349.
  62. ^ Mason O, Claridge G, Jackson M (1995). "New scales for the assessment of schizotypy". Personality and Individual Differences. 18: 7–13. doi:10.1016/0191-8869(94)00132-c.
  63. ^ Brandon NJ, Sawa A (November 2011). "Linking neurodevelopmental and synaptic theories of mental illness through DISC1". Nature Reviews. Neuroscience. 12 (12): 707–22. doi:10.1038/nrn3120. PMC 3954824. PMID 22095064.
  64. ^ Tomppo L, Hennah W, Miettunen J, Järvelin MR, Veijola J, Ripatti S, et al. (February 2009). "Association of variants in DISC1 with psychosis-related traits in a large population cohort". Archives of General Psychiatry. 66 (2): 134–41. doi:10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2008.524. PMC 2704396. PMID 19188535.
  65. ^ Umesh S, Nizamie SH, Goyal N, Tikka S, Bose S (June 2018). "Social anhedonia and gamma band abnormalities as a composite/multivariate endophenotype for schizophrenia: a dense array EEG study: Multivariate endophenotype: schizophrenia". Early Intervention in Psychiatry. 12 (3): 362–71. doi:10.1111/eip.12327. PMID 27001559. S2CID 46562313.
  66. ^ Wolf DH (August 2006). "Anhedonia in schizophrenia". Current Psychiatry Reports. 8 (4): 322–28. doi:10.1007/s11920-006-0069-0. PMID 16879797. S2CID 33957605.
  67. ^ Gold JM, Waltz JA, Prentice KJ, Morris SE, Heerey EA (September 2008). "Reward processing in schizophrenia: a deficit in the representation of value". Schizophrenia Bulletin. 34 (5): 835–47. doi:10.1093/schbul/sbn068. PMC 2518641. PMID 18591195.
  68. ^ Mas-Herrero E, Zatorre RJ, Rodriguez-Fornells A, Marco-Pallarés J (March 2014). "Dissociation between musical and monetary reward responses in specific musical anhedonia". Current Biology. 24 (6): 699–704. Bibcode:2014CBio...24..699M. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2014.01.068. hdl:2445/181297. PMID 24613311.
[edit]
Look up anhedonia in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Anhedonia&oldid=1245422017"