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Muḥammad ibn 'Abdallāh Hassan

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"Mad Mullah" redirects here. Not to be confused with Muhammad Ahmad (1844–1885), the "Mad Mahdi".

Sayyid
Muḥammad Ibn Abdallāh Ibn Hassan
محمد بن عبدالله بن حسن
𐒉𐒖𐒕𐒕𐒘𐒆 𐒑𐒙𐒔𐒖𐒑𐒑𐒗𐒆 𐒛𐒁𐒆𐒚𐒐𐒐𐒖𐒔 H𐒖𐒈𐒈𐒖𐒒
Statue of Muhammad Abdullah Hassan in Mogadishu
Supreme Leader of the Dervish State
In office
21 April 1896 – 21 December 1920
Preceded byPosition established
Succeeded byPosition destablished
Personal details
Born
Muḥammad Ibn Abdallāh Ibn Hassan

(1856-04-07)7 April 1856
Sacmadeeq, Haud
Died(1920-12-21)21 December 1920 (aged 64)
Iimey, Ogaden
Cause of deathInfluenza
Political partyDervish Movement
SpouseHasna Doreh
Occupation
  • Politician
  • Theologian
  • Poet
  • Scholar
  • Military Leader
Signature
Title"Mad Mullah", "Sayyid"
Personal
ReligionIslam
DenominationSunni
JurisprudenceShafi'i
TariqaSalihiyya

Muḥammad Ibn Abdallāh Ibn Hassan (Arabic: محمد بن عبد الله حسن: Somali: Maxamed Cabdulle Xasan; Osmanya: 𐒉𐒖𐒕𐒕𐒘𐒆 𐒑𐒙𐒔𐒖𐒑𐒑𐒗𐒆 𐒛𐒁𐒆𐒚𐒐𐒐𐒖𐒔 H𐒖𐒈𐒈𐒖𐒒: 7 April 1856 – 21 December 1920)[1] was a Somali, Scholar, Poet, Religious, Political, Social and Military leader who founded and headed the Dervish movement, which led a Holy war against British, Italian and Ethiopian intrusions in the Somali Peninsula. He was famously known by the British Empire as the ''Mad Mullah".[2] In 1917, the Ottoman Empire referred him as the "Emir of the Somali People".[3] Due to his successful completion of the Hajj to Mecca, his complete memorization of the Quran and his purported descent from the Islamic prophet Muhammad, his name is sometimes preluded with honorifics such as Hajji, Hafiz, Emir, Sheikh, Mullah or Sayyid.[4][5] His influence led him to being regarded the “Farther of the Somali People”.[6][7][8]

Background

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In Berbera, the established Qadiriyya tariqa would soon be challenged by a new tariqa. The most prominent Sheikh of the Salihiyya order were Isma'il ibn Ishaq al-Urwayni and the Dervish emir Hassan (called Mad Mullah by British) who arrived in Berbera in 1895 and constructed his own mosque and began propagating. He was strongly against khat and chewing tobacco, both of which the Qadiriyya had permitted.[9] Amongst other disputes, he would come to debate the leading Qadiriyya sheikhs of Berbera including Aw Gaas and Xaaji Ibrahim Xirsi. Sheikh Madar, the leader of Somali Qadiriyya was invited to participate in 1897 and after rigorous discussion, the Qadiriyya tariqa had proved victorious and Mohamed Abdullah Hassan had been refuted. British authorities took note of the disturbance and turmoil and he was thus expelled from the city. The divisions were deep and both sides had accused the other of heresy, Hassan would go on to form the Dervish movement based on Salihiyya just two years after the debates partly in rebuke of the Qadiriyya status quo.[10]

In March 1899, one Duwaleh Hirsi, a former member of the Somali Aden police then Mr Percy Cox's (former counsel-resident of Zeila and Berbera, 1893–1895) expedition guide in Somaliland, allegedly stole a rifle and sold it to the tariqa at Kob Fardod. The vice-counsel at the coast, Harry Edward Spiller Cordeaux, sent a letter to the mullahs at Kob Fardod demanding the return of the rifle. The letter was carried by a Somali mounted policeman named Ahmed Adan. Upon his return after the delivery of the letter, Cordeaux interviewed Adan, who provided the following information:

I knew many of the people there—some of them were relations of mine. My brother-in-law, Dualeh Aoreb, was there. I asked them if they had any rifles, they said they at first had only six, but had just received fifty-five from Hafoon. I saw two or three of the new lot, they are Martins(new). They told me they had one or two "14-shot rifles." I saw some Mullahs walking about with Sniders. The Sheikh himself and some of his Mullahs used to practice daily shooting at a target; they put up a shield against a tree. I used to talk with people every day. We talked about many things, some of the words they said were good and others were bad. They called me a Kafir, and laughed at my uniform, saying that I smelt, and asking me why I wore the Sircars clothes. There were hundreds of people there, some from every tribe, Dolbahanta, Habr Toljaala, and Habr Yunis.[11]

What is particularly revealing about Ahmed Adan's interview is the confusion that was caused by another letter carried by a Somali, supposedly also from the British administration at the coast. This second letter angered the mullahs at the Tariqa;

"On the third day the Mullah sent for me. I had seen him before; he often used to come into the house. I went to him, and he said he would give me his reply to the letter I had brought; that he had just received another letter which had been brought by a Somali. He asked me about it, but I told him I knew nothing about it, and asked him who had brought it. He said, “A Somali.” A man named Salan had come in that day. I thought that he must have brought the letter. He then gave me a letter. It was written on the back of the letter I had brought him. I saw the Government stamp on it. He (the Sheikh) said, “This is the reply to your letter. I will give you the answer to the other letter to-morrow.” He said that the second letter contained “bad words.” Next morning he gave me two letters, and I then went away, and got into Berbera on Saturday night.”[11]

The second letter provoked the mullahs, the hostile tone in the reply is due to the offensive second letter carried by Salaan the Somali. Both replies; one regarding the rifle curt but relatively inoffensive and a second addressing the confusing insolent second letter are in the British record.[12]

The Dervish War

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Main article: Dervish movement (Nugaal)

The news that sparked the Dervish rebellion and the 21 year disturbance according to the consul-general James Hayes Sadler was either spread or concocted by Sultan Nur of the Habr Yunis. The incident in question was that of a group of Somali children that were converted to Christianity and adopted by the French Catholic Mission at Berbera in 1899. Whether Sultan Nur experienced the incident first hand or whether he was told of it is not clear but what is known is that he propagated the incident in the Tariqa at Kob Fardod in June 1899.[13] In one of his letters to Sultan Deria in 1899, Sayyid Hassan said that the British "have destroyed our religion and made our children their children" alluding to Sultan Nur's incident with the Roman French Mission at Berbera. The Dervishes soon emerged as an opposition of the Christian activities, defending their version of Islam against the Christian mission.[14]

The Mad Mullah riding a camel alongside his Dervish followers

Risala lil-Bimal: Letter to the Bimal

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There are only one people during the Dervish struggle the Sayyid extensively asked in a letter to join his struggle. Those were the Bimal clan. His letter to the Bimal was documented as the most extended exposition of his mind as a Muslim thinker and religious figure. The letter is until this day still preserved. It is said that the Bimal thanks to their size being numerically powerful, traditionally and religiously devoted fierce warriors and having possession of much resources have intrigued Mahamed Abdulle Hassan. But not only that the Bimal themselves mounted an extensive and major resistance against the Italians, especially in the first decade of the 19th century. The Italians carried many expeditions against the powerful Bimal to try and pacify them. Because of this the Bimal had all the reason to join the Dervish struggle and by doing so to win their support over. the Sayyid wrote a detailed theological statement to put forward to the Bimal tribe who dominated the strategic Banaadir port of Merca and its surroundings.[15]

One of the Italian's greatest fears was the spread of 'Dervishism' ( had come to mean revolt) in the south and the strong Bimaal tribe of Benadir whom already were at war with the Italians, while not following the religious message or adhering to the views of Muhammad Abdullah Hassan, understood greatly his goal and political tactics. The dervishes in this case were engaged in supplying arms to the Bimaal.[16] The Italians wanted to bring in an end to the Bimaal revolt and at all cost prevent a Bimal-Dervish alliance, which lead them to use the forces of Obbia and the Mijertein as prevention.[16]

Illustration of Mohamed Abdullah Hassan by da Rondini, from cover of Il Mullah del paese dei somali by Douglas Jardine[17]

Ethiopia, Britain and Italy

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However, soon angered by his autocratic rule, Hussen Hirsi Dala Iljech' – a Mohammed Subeer chieftain – plotted to kill him. The news of the plot leaked to Hassan. He escaped but his maternal uncle, Aw 'Abbas, was killed. Some weeks later, Mohammed Subeer sent a peace delegation of 32 men to Hassan, but he had all the members of the delegation arrested and killed. Shocked by this, Mohammed Subeer sought the help of the Ethiopians and the Dervish withdrew to Nugaal.

Towards the end of 1900, Ethiopian Emperor Menelik proposed a joint action with the British against the Dervish. Accordingly, British Lt. Col. Eric John Eagles Swayne assembled a force of 1,500 Somali soldiers led by 21 European officers and started from Burco on 22 May 1901, while an Ethiopian army of 15,000 soldiers started from Harar to join the British forces intent on crushing the 20,000 Dervish fighters (of whom 40 percent were cavalry).

On 9 January 1904, at the Jidaale (Jidballi) plain, the British Commander, General Charles Egerton, killed 1,000 Dervish.[18] This defeat forced Sayyid and his remaining men to flee to Majeerteen country.[citation needed]

Around 1909, in a secret meeting under a big tree later nicknamed "Anjeel tale waa" ("The Tree of Bad Counsel"), about 400 Dervish followers decided to stop following the mullah upon receiving the expulsion letter from the head of the Tariqa, Sheikh Salah, excommunicating the mullah. Their departure weakened, demoralized and angered Sayyid, and it was at this juncture that he composed his poem entitled The Tree of Bad Counsel.[citation needed]

Fight against the Qadiriyya

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Despite leaving Berbera after being rebuked by the leading Sheikhs of the rival Qadiriyya school the enmity did not end. Heated poems would be exchanged between the Sayyid and prominent Sheikh Uways al-Barawi from Barawa, the leader of the 1908 Benadir revolt.[19]

Uways recited this qasida criticizing the Sayyid:[20]

With a long response the Sayyid ended with these sharp words:

A word from the backsliding apostates (Qadiriyya)
Who have gone astray from the Prophet's way, the straight path
Why is the truth so plain, hidden from you?

This exchange would lead to takfir or accusations of apostasy from both men and the murder of Uways by the Dervish in 1909. This ironically proved Sheikh Uways' accusation that the Sayyid deemed it lawful to spill the blood of the learned. The Sayyid would mock Sheikh Uways death with a final poem Behold, at last, when we slew the old wizard, the rains began to come!".[21]

Consolidation

[edit]
The Dervish fort / Dhulbahante garesa in Taleex

During 1909-1910, the dervish capital moved from Illig to Taleh in the heart of Nugal where the dervish built three garrison forts of massive stone work and a number of houses. He built a luxurious palace for himself and kept new guards drawn from outcast clans. By 1913, the dervish dominated the entire hinterland of the Somali peninsula building forts at Jildali and Mirashi, and at Werder in the Ogaden and Beledweyne in southern Somalia. On 9 August 1913, at the Battle of Dul Madoba, a Dervish force raided the Dolbahanta clan and killed or wounded 57 members of the 110-man Somaliland Camel Constabulary. The dead included the British officer who commanded the constabulary, Colonel Richard Corfield. Hassan memorialized this action in his poem simply entitled "The Death of Richard Corfield". In the same year, fourteen Dervishes infiltrated Berbera and fired few shots on its citizens fleeing, nonetheless causing panic. In 1914, the Somaliland Camel Corps was founded as an expanded and improved version of the constabulary.[citation needed]

A British force was gathering against the Dervishes when they were interrupted by the outbreak of World War I. Among the British officers deployed was Adrian Carton de Wiart (later Lieutenant General), who lost an eye during the campaign, and Hastings Ismay, a staff officer who was later Winston Churchill's chief military adviser.[citation needed]

Defeat

[edit]
Main article: Somaliland Campaign

In the beginning of 1920, the British struck the Dervish settlements with a well-coordinated air and land attack and inflicted a stunning defeat. The forts of the dervishes were damaged and the army suffered great losses. The Dervish retreated in to the Ogaden territory in Abyssinia and raided the Ogaden Bah Hawadle clan who were under Habr Yunis protection, reacting to this incident, Haji Warabe of the Reer Caynaashe assembled an army composed of 3,000 warriors. The army set out from Togdheer, on the dawn of July 20, 1920, his army reached Shineleh where the Dervish were camped and proceeded to attack them. The Dervish numbering about 800 were quickly defeated, 700 being killed in the battle, the few remaining survivors fled south. Haji and his army captured 60,000 camels and 700 rifles from the defeated Dervish. During the midst of the battle Haji Warabe entered Hassan's tent but found the tent empty with Hassan's tea still hot.[22] The Mullah, now a fugitive, continued to flee westwards into the thirsty wastelands of the Ogaden.[23][24][25]

In October 1920, he eventually settled down at Guano Imi, at the head waters of the Shebelle River in the Arsi country, with a party of some four hundred followers. When Fitawrari Seyoum, commanding the nearest Abyssinian garrison at Ginir, heard of his arrival, he sent one of his officers, Garazmatch Ayale, to learn why he had entered Abyssinian territory. The Mullah received the officer well, and said that he had been beaten in battle by the British and had come to Abyssinia for protection. He then sent the Fitawrari four rifles and a revolver as presents and asked for some provisions in exchange. Fitawrari Seyoum reported the matter to Ras Tafari, who ordered him to not attack the Mullah but keep him under his watch. However, provisions were not provided and famine fell on the Mullah's camp, with most of his remaining followers dying of sickness and hunger; the few that survived were said to have dispersed shortly after.[26][27]

Death

[edit]
The Sayyid's tomb at Imi

On 21 December 1920, Hassan died of influenza at the age of 64, his grave is believed to be somewhere close to Imi town of the Somali Region of Ethiopia; however, the exact spot of the Sayid's grave is unknown. In mid 2009, the Somali Regional State administration announced that they would exhume his remains and rebury them in his old castle at Imi.[28] Most of the people who knew the exact location of Hassan's tomb were long dead, but the Regional Information Minister Guled Casowe told VOA Somali Section that a few, very old individuals might be left and they would be able to reveal the details of Hassan's grave. Remains were found in a graveyard at Ginir and the Somali Region of Ethiopia then tried to test the DNA to determine whether they could be those of Sayid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan.[29]

Legacy

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Hassan has been seen by some as an icon of Pan-Somalism, and has been considered one of the great revolutionaries of the turn of the 20th century by members of the Pan-Africanist movement.[30][31]

A Socialist realist statue of Hassan riding his horse Hiin-Faniin[32] (sometimes called Sayidka or Siyadka)[33] was built in central Mogadishu near the Mogadishu Central Mosque in the 1970s or 1980s,[34][35] but the statue was torn down between 1991 and 1993 and sold as scrap metal.[36][37][38] The damaged foundation of the monument was left standing.[39]

On 18 October 2019, the monument was restored and unveiled by Somali president Mohamed Abdullahi Mohamed, along with other restored monuments.[40][41] A similar statue was built in the Ethiopian city of Jigjiga in 2013.[42]

In the Haud region, there is a monument marking Hassan's birthplace, called Sacmadeeqa.[43]

Media

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[edit]
  • The documentary film The Parching Winds of Somalia includes a section on the Dervish struggle and its leader Mohammed Abdullah Hassan.
  • The historic romance novel Ignorance is the Enemy of Love by Farah Mohamed Jama Awl has a Dervish protagonist called Calimaax, who is part of an ill-fated love story and fights against the British, Italians and Ethiopians in the Horn of Africa.
  • A 1983, film entitled A Somali Dervish was directed by Abdulkadir Ahmed Said.
  • In the Law & Order: Criminal Intent episode "Loyalty", references are made to the Dervishes and their leader. The episode also features a character purported to have been descended from Muhammad Abdullah Hassan.
  • In 1985, a 4-hour and 40 minute Indian-produced epic film by filmmaker Salah Ahmed entitled the Somalia Dervishes went into production. With a budget of $1.8 million, it included an actual descendant of Hassan as its star, and featured hundreds of actors and extras.[44]
  • In the popular comic book series Corto Maltese, the protagonist travels to the Horn of Africa during the Dervishes' battle against the British, and witnesses the former power storm a British fort. During these travels, he develops a long-term friendship with a Dervish warrior named Cush, who subsequently features in several other of Corto's adventures around the world.

Poems

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Some poems by the Sayid include:[45]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ LC gives 1864 birth year
  2. ^ McAteer, William (2008). The History of the Seychelles: To be a nation : 1920-1976. Pristine Books. p. 37. ISBN 978-99931-809-2-0.
  3. ^ Empires at War: 1911-1923, edited by Robert Gerwarth, Erez Manela, p. 48
  4. ^ Moolla, F. Fiona (2014). Reading Nuruddin Farah: The Individual, the Novel & the Idea of Home. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. ISBN 978-1-78204-238-9.
  5. ^ Huisman, Kimberly A.; Hough, Mazie; Langellier, Kristin M.; Toner, Carol Nordstrom (7 June 2011). Somalis in Maine: Crossing Cultural Currents. North Atlantic Books. p. 12. ISBN 978-1-55643-926-1.
  6. ^ Samatar, Said S. "Genius as madness: King Tewodros of Ethiopia and Sayyid Muhammad of Somalia in comparative perspective." Northeast African Studies 10.3 (2003): 27-32.
  7. ^ Abbink, G.J. "Dervishes, 'moryaan'and freedom fighters: cycles of rebellion and the fragmentation of Somali society, 1900-2000." African dynamics (2003): pg. 38.
  8. ^ Hess, Robert L. (1964). "The 'Mad Mullah' and Northern Somalia". The Journal of African History. 5 (3): 415–433. doi:10.1017/S0021853700005107. ISSN 1469-5138.
  9. ^ Abdullahi (Badiyow), Abdurahman (2015). The Islamic Movement in Somalia. Adonis & Abbey Publishers Ltd. p. 71. ISBN 9781912234035.
  10. ^ Abdullahi (Badiyow), Abdurahman (2015). THE ISLAMIC MOVEMENT IN SOMALIA. Adonis & Abbey Publishers Ltd. p. 72. ISBN 9781912234035.
  11. ^ a b Foreign Department-External-B, August 1899, N. 33-234, NAI, New Delhi.In closure 5 in No. 1. Statement by Ahmed Adan, Camel Sowar
  12. ^ Foreign Department-External-B, August 1899, N. 33-234, NAI, New Delhi, Inclosure 2 in No. 1. And inclosure 3 in No. 1.
  13. ^ F.O.78/5031, Sayyid Mohamad To The Aidagalla, Enclosed Sadler To Salisbury. 69, 20 August 1899.
  14. ^ Fage, J. D.; Roberts, A. D.; Oliver, Roland Anthony, eds. (1986). The Cambridge History of Africa, Volume 7. Cambridge University Press. p. 196. ISBN 0521225051.
  15. ^ Samatar, Said S. (1992). In the Shadow of Conquest: Islam in Colonial Northeast Africa. The Red Sea Press. ISBN 978-0-932415-70-7.
  16. ^ a b Hess, Robert L. (1 January 1964). "The 'Mad Mullah' and Northern Somalia". The Journal of African History. 5 (3): 415–433, page 422. doi:10.1017/s0021853700005107. JSTOR 179976. S2CID 162991126.
  17. ^ "Bibliografia Ost-Afrika: un archivio bibliografico e documentario sull'Africa Orientale". UNIFI. Retrieved 25 February 2018. Copertina ill. da Rondini
  18. ^ "1,000 Dervishes slain; British Rout the "Mad" Mullah's Forces in Somaliland". New York Times. 12 January 1903. Retrieved 22 June 2013.
  19. ^ Abdullahi (Badiyow), Abdurahman (2015). THE ISLAMIC MOVEMENT IN SOMALIA. Adonis & Abbey Publishers Ltd. p. 73. ISBN 9781912234035.
  20. ^ Reese, Scott S. (2001). "The Best of Guides: Sufi Poetry and Alternate Discourses of Reform in Early Twentieth-Century Somalia". Journal of African Cultural Studies. 14 (1 Islamic Religious Poetry in Africa): 49–68. doi:10.1080/136968101750333969. JSTOR 3181395. S2CID 162001423.
  21. ^ Abdullahi (Badiyow), Abdurahman (2015). THE ISLAMIC MOVEMENT IN SOMALIA. Adonis & Abbey Publishers Ltd. p. 74. ISBN 9781912234035.
  22. ^ Beachey, R. W. (1990). The warrior mullah: the Horn aflame, 1892-1920, by R.W Beachey, p.153. Bellew. ISBN 9780947792435.
  23. ^ A Somali Poetic Combat Pt. I, II and III, p. 43
  24. ^ Perham, Margery. The Government of Ethiopia. p. 336.
  25. ^ James Louis Garvin; Franklin Henry Hooper; Warren E. Cox, eds. (1929). The Encyclopædia Britannica, Volume 20 (14 ed.). The Encyclopædia Britannica Company, ltd. p. 968.
  26. ^ Douglas Jardine (1923). The Mad Mullah Of Somaliland. Bellew. p. 307. ISBN 978-0-947792-43-5.Public Domain This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain.
  27. ^ Osman Omar, Mohamed (2006). Somalia: Past and Present. Somali Publications. p. 126.
  28. ^ Honouring Sayid Mohamed Abdulle Hassan, By Mohamed Bakayr Archived 2016-03-03 at the Wayback Machine.
  29. ^ "Guled Asowe: We are Searching The Burial Place of Sayid Mohamed.", VOA, 2 January 2010. Accessed 18 January 2011.
  30. ^ Sons of the soil, the Mad Mullah by Pan-African Renaissance, February 5th, 2017
  31. ^ "Osagyefo Dr. Kwame Nkrumah Infobank". Archived from the original on 23 April 2017. Retrieved 22 April 2017.
  32. ^ Statue Sayyid Mohammed Abdullah Hassan - 3D model by SomaliArchitecture, retrieved 23 July 2022
  33. ^ "Siyadka · Mogadishu, Somalia". Google Maps. Retrieved 23 July 2022.
  34. ^ "Statue of Somali Leader Mohammed Abdille Hassan - UWDC - UW-Madison Libraries". search.library.wisc.edu. Retrieved 23 July 2022.
  35. ^ Abdullahi, Mohamed Diriye (2001). Culture and Customs of Somalia. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 42. ISBN 978-0-313-31333-2.
  36. ^ Limited, Alamy. "Muḥammad ibn 'Abdallāh Hassan's statue was removed from the Somali capital after Siad Barre fled. between 1991 and 1993". www.alamy.com. Retrieved 23 July 2022. {{cite web}}: |last= has generic name (help)
  37. ^ "Equestrian statue of Sayid Abdullah Hassan in Mogadishu Somalia". Equestrian statues. 6 April 2016. Retrieved 23 July 2022.
  38. ^ Natalia Telepneva. "A Cultural Heritage for National Liberation? The Soviet-Somali Historical Expedition, Soviet African Studies, and the Cold War in the Horn of Africa" (PDF). Pure.strath.ac.uk. Retrieved 24 July 2022.
  39. ^ "Statue of Mohammed Abdullah Hassan - Mogadishu". wikimapia.org. Retrieved 23 July 2022.
  40. ^ "Ministry of Information on Twitter: "H.E President @M_Farmaajo attends the reopening ceremony of the #Sayidka, #Dhagahtur, #HawoTako, #AhmedGurey and #SYL Monuments in #Mogadishu this afternoon on October 18, 2019, after several days of renovations."". Twitter. Retrieved 23 July 2022.
  41. ^ "Taalada Sayid Mohamed Abdulle Hassan · 28PH+QVQ, Mogadishu, Somalia". Google Maps. Retrieved 23 July 2022.
  42. ^ "Equestrian statue of Sayid Abdullah Hassan in Jigjiga Ethiopia". Equestrian statues. 6 April 2016. Retrieved 23 July 2022.
  43. ^ Njoku, Raphael Chijioke (22 November 2013). The History of Somalia. ABC-CLIO. ISBN 9780313378577 – via Google Books.
  44. ^ Exploits of Somalia's national hero becomes basis for movie – Kentucky New Era
  45. ^ Diiwaanka gabayadii, 1856-1921 - Maxamad Cabdulle Xasan · 1999, PAGE 26
  46. ^ notes on Dervish personalities. ISMAY: 3/1/22.1919

References

[edit]
  • Abdisalam Issa-Salwe, The Failure of The Daraawiish State, The Clash Between Somali Clanship and State System, paper presented at the 5th International Congress of Somali Studies, December 1993 [1]
  • Abdi Sheik Abdi, Divine Madness: Mohammed Abdulle Hassan (1856–1920), Zed Books Ltd., London, 1993
  • Battersby, Henry Francis Prevost. Richard Corfield of Somaliland (1914), ASIN: B000WFUQT8.
  • Jaamac Cumar Ciise, Taariikhdii Daraawiishta iyo Sayid Maxamed Cabdulle Xasan, (1895–1921), Wasaaradda Hiddaha iyo Tacliinta Sare, edited by Akadeemiyaha Dhaqanka, Mogadishu, 1976.
  • Jardine, Douglas J., The Mad Mullah of Somaliland, H. Jenkins, 1923.
  • McNeill, Malcolm, In Pursuit of the 'Mad' Mullah, 1902.
  • Said S. Samatar, Oral Poetry and Somali Nationalism: The Case of Sayyid Mahammad Abdille Hasan, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982 (analyzes Mahammad Abdille's poetry and assesses his nationalist and literary contributions to the Somali heritage)
  • Silberman, Leo. "The 'mad' Mullah: Hero Of Somali Nationalism." History Today (Aug 1960) 10#8 pp 523–534.
  • Skoulding, F.A. With 'Z' Unit in Somaliland, RAF Quarterly 2, no.3, (July 1931), pp. 387–396.
  • Swayne, H.G.C., Seventeen Trips through Somaliland and a visit to Abyssinia: With Supplementary preface on the 'Mad Mullah' risings, 1903.
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