Jump to content

Maasai people

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Masai people)

Maasai
A gathering of Maasai men in 2005
Total population
c. 8 million
Regions with significant populations
 Kenya1,189,522 (2019)[1]
 Tanzaniaapprox. 7,000,000 (2015)[2]
Languages
Maa, Swahili, English
Religion
Maasai religion, other traditional African religions
Related ethnic groups
Samburu, Ilchamus, Chaga, Ngasa, Luo, other Nilotic peoples
Part of a series on the
Culture of Kenya
History
People
Historic peoples

Modern ethnicities

Diaspora

Languages
Mythology
Cuisine
Festivals
Religion
Art
Literature
Music and performing arts

Performing arts

Media

Government agencies

Television

Radio

Newspapers

Sport
Monuments
Symbols
Part of a series on the
Culture of Tanzania
History
People
Languages
Cuisine
Festivals
Religion
Literature
Music
Media
Sport
Monuments
Symbols

The Maasai (/ˈmɑːsaɪ, mɑːˈsaɪ/;[3][4] Swahili: Wamasai) are a Nilotic ethnic group inhabiting northern, central and southern Kenya and northern Tanzania, near the African Great Lakes region.[5] Their native language is the Maasai language,[5] a Nilotic language related to Dinka, Kalenjin and Nuer. Except for some elders living in rural areas, most Maasai people speak the official languages of Kenya and Tanzania—Swahili and English.[6]

The Maasai population has been reported as numbering 1,189,522 in Kenya in the 2019 census,[1] compared to 377,089 in the 1989 census, though many Maasai view the census as government meddling and therefore either refuse to participate or actively provide false information.[7][8][9]

History

[edit]

The Maasai inhabit the African Great Lakes region and arrived via South Sudan.[10] Most Nilotic speakers in the area, including the Maasai, the Turkana and the Kalenjin, are pastoralists and have a reputation as fearsome warriors and cattle rustlers.[10] The Maasai and other groups in East Africa have adopted customs and practices from neighbouring Cushitic-speaking groups, including the age-set system of social organisation, circumcision, and vocabulary terms.[11][12][full citation needed]

Origin, migration and assimilation

[edit]
Maasai man

Many ethnic groups that had already formed settlements in the region were forcibly displaced[when?] by the incoming Maasai.[13] Other, mainly Southern Cushitic groups, were assimilated into Maasai society. The Nilotic ancestors of the Kalenjin likewise absorbed some early Cushitic populations.[14]

Settlement in East Africa

[edit]

The Maasai territory reached its largest size in the mid-19th century and covered almost all of the Great Rift Valley and adjacent lands from Mount Marsabit in the north to Dodoma in the south.[15] At this time the Maasai, as well as the larger Nilotic group they were part of, raised cattle as far east as the Tanga coast in Tanganyika (now mainland Tanzania). Raiders used spears and shields but were most feared for throwing clubs (orinka) which could be accurately thrown from up to 70 paces (approx. 100 metres). In 1852, there was a report of a concentration of 800 Maasai warriors on the move in what is now Kenya. In 1857, after having depopulated the "Wakuafi wilderness" in what is now southeastern Kenya, Maasai warriors threatened Mombasa on the Kenyan coast.[16]

Maasai warriors in German East Africa, c. 1906–1918

Because of this migration, the Maasai are the southernmost Nilotic speakers. The period of expansion was followed by the Maasai "Emutai" of 1883–1902. This period was marked by epidemics of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia, rinderpest (see 1890s African rinderpest epizootic), and smallpox. The estimate first put forward by a German lieutenant in what was then northwest Tanganyika, was that 90% of cattle and half of wild animals perished from rinderpest. German doctors in the same area claimed that "every second" African had a pock-marked face as the result of smallpox. This period coincided with drought. Rains failed in 1897 and 1898.[17]

The Austrian explorer Oscar Baumann travelled in Maasai lands between 1891 and 1893 and described the old Maasai settlement in the Ngorongoro Crater in the 1894 book Durch Massailand zur Nilquelle ("Through the lands of the Maasai to the source of the Nile"). By one estimate two-thirds of the Maasai died during this period.[18][19][20] Maasai in Tanganyika (now mainland Tanzania) were displaced from the fertile lands between Mount Meru and Mount Kilimanjaro, and most of the fertile highlands near Ngorongoro in the 1940s.[21] More land was taken to create wildlife reserves and national parks: Amboseli National Park, Nairobi National Park, Maasai Mara, Samburu National Reserve, Lake Nakuru National Park and Tsavo in Kenya; and Lake Manyara, Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tarangire[22] and Serengeti National Park in what is now Tanzania.

Maasai are pastoralists and have resisted the urging of the Tanzanian and Kenyan governments to adopt a more sedentary lifestyle. They have demanded grazing rights to many of the national parks in both countries.[23]

The Maasai people stood against slavery and never condoned the traffic of human beings, and outsiders looking for people to enslave avoided the Maasai.[24]

Essentially there are twenty-two geographic sectors or sub-tribes of the Maasai community, each one having its customs, appearance, leadership and dialects. These subdivisions are known as 'nations' or 'iloshon' in the Maa language: the Keekonyokie, Ildamat, Purko, Wuasinkishu, Siria, Laitayiok, Loitai, Ilkisonko, Matapato, Dalalekutuk, Ilooldokilani, Ilkaputiei, Moitanik, Ilkirasha, Samburu, Ilchamus, Laikipiak, Loitokitoki, Larusa, Salei, Sirinket and Parakuyo.[25]

Genetics

[edit]

Recent advances in genetic analyses have helped shed some light on the ethnogenesis of the Maasai people. Genetic genealogy, a tool that uses the genes of modern populations to trace their ethnic and geographic origins, has also helped clarify the possible background of modern Maasai.[26]

Autosomal DNA

[edit]

The Maasai's autosomal DNA has been examined in a comprehensive study by Tishkoff et al. (2009) on the genetic affiliations of various populations in Africa. According to the study's authors, the Maasai "have maintained their culture in the face of extensive genetic introgression".[27] Tishkoff et al. also indicate that: "Many Nilo-Saharan-speaking populations in East Africa, such as the Maasai, show multiple cluster assignments from the Nilo-Saharan [...] and Cushitic [...] AACs, in accord with linguistic evidence of repeated Nilotic assimilation of Cushites over the past 3000 years and with the high frequency of a shared East African–specific mutation associated with lactose tolerance."[27]

Maasai display significant West-Eurasian admixture at roughly ~20%. This type of West-Eurasian ancestry reaches up to 40-50% among specific populations of the Horn of Africa, specifically among Amharas. Genetic data and archeologic evidence suggest that East African pastoralists received West Eurasian ancestry (~25%) through Afroasiatic-speaking groups from Northern Africa or the Arabian Peninsula, and later spread this ancestry component southwards into certain Khoisan groups roughly 2,000 years ago, resulting in ~5% West-Eurasian ancestry among Southern African hunter-gatherers.[28][29]

A 2019 archaeogenetic study sampled ancient remains from Neolithic inhabitants of Tanzania and Kenya, and found them to have strongest affinities with modern Horn of Africa groups. They modelled the Maasai community as having ancestry that is ~47% Pastoral Neolithic Cushitic-related and ~53% Sudanese Dinka-related.[30]

Y-DNA

[edit]

A Y chromosome study by Wood et al. (2005) tested various Sub-Saharan populations, including 26 Maasai men from Kenya, for paternal lineages. The authors observed haplogroup E1b1b-M35 (not M78) in 35% of the studied Maasai.[31] E1b1b-M35-M78 in 15%, their ancestor with the more northerly Cushitic men, who possess the haplogroup at high frequencies[32] lived more than 13,000 years ago.[33] The second most frequent paternal lineage among the Maasai was Haplogroup A3b2, which is commonly found in Nilotic populations, such as the Alur;[31][34] it was observed in 27% of Maasai men. The third most frequently observed paternal DNA marker in the Maasai was E1b1a1-M2 (E-P1), which is very common in the Sub-Saharan region; it was found in 12% of the Maasai samples. Haplogroup B-M60 was also observed in 8% of the studied Maasai,[31] which is also found in 30% (16/53) of Southern Sudanese Nilotes.[34]

Mitochondrial DNA

[edit]

According to an mtDNA study by Castri et al. (2008), which tested Maasai individuals in Kenya, the maternal lineages found among the Maasai are quite diverse but similar in overall frequency to that observed in other Nilo-Hamitic populations from the region, such as the Samburu. Most of the tested Maasai belonged to various macro-haplogroup L sub-clades, including L0, L2, L3, L4 and L5. Some maternal gene flow from North and Northeast Africa was also reported, particularly via the presence of mtDNA haplogroup M lineages in about 12.5% of the Maasai samples.[35][36]

Culture

[edit]
Maasai warriors confronting a spotted hyena, a common livestock predator, as photographed in In Wildest Africa (1907)

The monotheistic Maasai worship a single deity called Enkai, Nkai,[13] or Engai. Engai has a dual nature, represented by two colours:[13] Engai Narok (Black God) is benevolent, and Engai Na-nyokie (Red God) is vengeful.[37]

There are also two pillars or totems of Maasai society: Oodo Mongi, the Red Cow and Orok Kiteng, the Black Cow with a subdivision of five clans or family trees.[38] The Maasai also have a totemic animal, which is the lion. The killing of a lion is used by the Maasai in the rite of passage ceremony.[39] The "Mountain of God", Ol Doinyo Lengai, is located in northernmost Tanzania and can be seen from Lake Natron in southernmost Kenya. The central human figure in the Maasai religious system is the laibon whose roles include shamanistic healing, divination and prophecy, and ensuring success in war or adequate rainfall. Today, they have a political role as well due to the elevation of leaders. Whatever power an individual laibon had was a function of personality rather than position.[40] Many Maasai have also adopted Christianity or Islam.[41] The Maasai produce intricate jewellery and sell these items to tourists.[42]

Maasai people and huts with enkang barrier in foreground –eastern Serengeti, 2006

Educating Maasai women to use clinics and hospitals during pregnancy has enabled more infants to survive. The exception is found in extremely remote areas.[43] A corpse rejected by scavengers is seen as having something wrong with it, and liable to cause social disgrace; therefore, it is not uncommon for bodies to be covered in fat and blood from a slaughtered ox.[44][45]

Traditional Maasai lifestyle centres around their cattle,[46] which constitute their primary source of food. In a patriarchal culture that views women as property, a man's wealth is measured in cattle, wives and children. A herd of 50 cattle is respectable, and the more wives and children the better. A man who has plenty of one but not the other is considered to be poor.[47][48]

All of the Maasai's needs for food are met by their cattle. They eat their meat, drink their milk daily, and drink their blood on occasion. Bulls, goats, and lambs are slaughtered for meat on special occasions and ceremonies. Though the Maasai's entire way of life has historically depended on their cattle, more recently with their cattle dwindling, the Maasai have grown dependent on food such as sorghum, rice, potatoes and cabbage (known to the Maasai as goat leaves).[49]

One common misconception about the Maasai is that each young man is supposed to kill a lion before he can be circumcised and enter adulthood. Lion hunting was an activity of the past, but it has been banned in East Africa – yet lions are still hunted when they maul Maasai livestock.[50][51] Nevertheless, killing a lion gives one great value and celebrity status in the community. [52][53]

Maasai school in Tanzania

Body modification

[edit]
Maasai woman with stretched earlobes

The piercing and stretching of earlobes are common among the Maasai as with other tribes, and both men and women wear metal hoops on their stretched earlobes. Various materials have been used to both pierce and stretch the lobes, including thorns for piercing, twigs, bundles of twigs, stones, the cross-section of elephant tusks and empty film canisters.[54] Women wear various forms of beaded ornaments in both the ear lobe and smaller piercings at the top of the ear.[55] Among Maasai males, circumcision is practised as a ritual of transition from boyhood to manhood. Women are also circumcised (as described below in social organisation).

This belief and practice are not unique to the Maasai. In rural Kenya, a group of 95 children aged between six months and two years were examined in 1991/92. 87% were found to have undergone the removal of one or more deciduous canine tooth buds. In an older age group (3–7 years of age), 72% of the 111 children examined exhibited missing mandibular or maxillary deciduous canines.[56][57]

Genital cutting

[edit]
Young Maasai warrior (a junior Moran) with headdress and markings

Traditionally, the Maasai conduct elaborate rite of passage rituals which include surgical genital mutilation to initiate children into adulthood. The Maa word for circumcision, "emorata," is applied to this ritual for both males and females.[58] This ritual is typically performed by the elders, who use a sharpened knife and makeshift cattle hide bandages for the procedure. [59]

The male ceremony refers to the excision of the prepuce (foreskin). In the male ceremony, the boy is expected to endure the operation in silence. Expressions of pain bring dishonour upon him, albeit only temporarily. Importantly, any exclamations or unexpected movements on the part of the boy can cause the elder to make a mistake in the delicate and tedious process, which can result in severe lifelong scarring, dysfunction, and pain.[60][61][62][63]

Young women also undergo female genital mutilation as part of an elaborate rite of passage ritual called "Emuatare," the ceremony that initiates young Maasai girls into adulthood through ritual mutilation and then into early arranged marriages.[64] The Maasai believe that female genital mutilation is necessary and Maasai men may reject any woman who has not undergone it as either not marriageable or worthy of a much-reduced bride price. In Eastern Africa, uncircumcised women, even highly educated members of parliament like Linah Kilimo, can be accused of not being mature enough to be taken seriously.[65] The Maasai activist Agnes Pareyio campaigns against the practice. The female rite of passage ritual has recently seen excision replaced in rare instances with a "cutting with words" ceremony involving singing and dancing in its place. However, despite changes to the law and education drives, the practice remains deeply ingrained, highly valued, and nearly universally practised by members of the culture.[66][67]

Hair

[edit]
Maasai woman with short hair

Upon reaching the age of 3 "moons", the child is named and the head is shaved clean apart from a tuft of hair, which resembles a cockade, from the nape of the neck to the forehead. [42]

Among the men, warriors are the only members of the Maasai community to wear long hair, which they weave in thinly braided strands.[68] Graduation from warrior to junior elder takes place at a large gathering known as Eunoto. The long hair of the former warriors is shaved off; elders must wear their hair short. Warriors who do not have sexual relations with women who have not undergone the "Emuatare" ceremony are especially honoured at the Eunoto gathering.[69][70][71][72]

This would symbolise the healing of the woman.[73]

Two days before boys are circumcised, their heads are shaved.[74][75] When warriors go through the Eunoto and become elders, their long plaited hair is shaved off.[76][77]

Music and dance

[edit]
Traditional jumping dance

Maasai music traditionally consists of rhythms provided by a chorus of vocalists singing harmonies while a song leader, or olaranyani, sings the melody.[78][79] Unlike most other African tribes, Maasai widely use drone polyphony.[80]

Women chant lullabies, humming songs, and songs praising their sons. Nambas, the call-and-response pattern, repetition of nonsensical phrases, monophonic melodies, repeated phrases following each verse being sung on a descending scale, and singers responding to their verses are characteristic of singing by women.[81][82][83][84] When many Maasai women gather together, they sing and dance among themselves.[85]

Eunoto, the coming-of-age ceremony of the warrior, can involve ten or more days of singing, dancing and ritual. The warriors of the Il-Oodokilani perform a kind of march-past as well as the Adumu, or aigus, sometimes referred to as "the jumping dance" by non-Maasai. (Both adumu and aigus are Maa verbs meaning "to jump" with adumu meaning "To jump up and down in a dance".[86][87][88])

Diet

[edit]
A Maasai herdsman grazing his cattle inside the Ngorongoro crater, Tanzania

Traditionally, the Maasai diet consisted of raw meat, raw milk, honey and raw blood from cattle—note that the Maasai cattle are of the Zebu variety.

Most of the milk is consumed as fermented milk or buttermilk (a by-product of butter making). Milk consumption figures are very high by any standards.[89][90]

The Maasai herd goats and sheep, including the Red Maasai sheep, as well as the more prized cattle.[91][92]

Although consumed as snacks, fruits constitute a major part of the food ingested by children and women looking after cattle as well as morans in the bush.[93][94][95]

A tradition Medicines And Herbs Hawker From Maasai

Medicine

The Maasai people traditionally used the environment when making their medicines, and many still do, due to the high cost of Western treatments. These medicines are derived from trees, shrubs, stems, roots, etc. These can then be used in a multitude of ways including being boiled in soups and ingested to improve digestion and cleanse the blood.[96] Some of these remedies can also be used in the treatment or prevention of diseases. The Maasai people also add herbs to different foods to avoid stomach upsets and give digestive aid. The use of plant-based medicine remains an important part of Maasai life.

Shelter

[edit]
Shelter covered in cattle dung for waterproofing

[97]

Panoramic view of Maasai Enkang, seen from the inside
Panoramic view of Maasai Enkang, seen from the outside

Clothing

[edit]
A Maasai woman wearing her finest clothes

Maasai clothing symbolises ethnic group membership, a pastoralist lifestyle, as well as an individual's social position.[98] From this they can decide the roles they undertake for the tribe. Jewellery also can show an individual's gender, relationship status, and age.[98] Maasai traditional clothing is both a means of tribal identification and symbolism: young men, for example, wear black for several months following their circumcision.

The Maasai began to replace animal skin, calf hides and sheep skin with commercial cotton cloth in the 1960s.[99]

Shúkà is the Maa word for sheets traditionally worn and wrapped around the body. These are typically red, sometimes integrated with other colours and patterns.[100] One-piece garments known as kanga, a Swahili term, are common.[101] Maasai near the coast may wear kikoi, a sarong-like garment that comes in many different colours and textiles[102][103][104]

Influences from the outside world

[edit]
Maasai women repairing a house in Maasai Mara (1996)

A traditional pastoral lifestyle has become increasingly difficult due to modern outside influences. Garrett Hardin's article outlining the "tragedy of the commons", as well as Melville Herskovits' "cattle complex" influenced ecologists and policymakers about the harm Maasai pastoralists were causing to savannah rangelands. This was later contested by some anthropologists.[105] British colonial policymakers in 1951 removed all Maasai from the Serengeti National Park and relegated them to areas in and around the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (NCA).

Maasai wearing protective masks during COVID-19 pandemic.
Maasai riding a motorcycle (2014)

Due to an increasing population, loss of cattle due to disease, and lack of available rangelands because of new park boundaries and competition from other tribes, the Maasai were forced to develop new ways of sustaining themselves. Many Maasai began to cultivate maize and other crops to get by, a practice that was culturally viewed negatively.[105] Cultivation was first introduced to the Maasai by displaced WaArusha and WaMeru women who married Maasai men.[citation needed]

In 1975 the Ngorongoro Conservation Area banned cultivation, forcing the tribe to participate in Tanzania's economy. They have to sell animals and traditional medicines to buy food. The ban on cultivation was lifted in 1992 and cultivation became an important part of Maasai livelihood once more. Park boundaries and land privatisation has continued to limit the Maasai livestock's grazing area.[106]

Throughout the years, various projects have attempted to help the Maasai people. These projects help find ways to preserve Maasai traditions while also encouraging modern education for their children.[107]

Emerging employment among the Maasai people include farming, business, and wage employment in both the public and private sectors.[108]

Many Maasai have also moved away from the nomadic life to positions in commerce and government.[109]

Eviction from ancestral land

[edit]

The Maasai community was reportedly being targeted with live ammunition and tear gas in June 2022 in Tanzania, in a government plan to seize a piece of Maasai land for elite private luxury development. Lawyers, human rights groups, and activists who brought the matter to light claimed that Tanzanian security forces tried to forcefully evict the indigenous Maasai people from their ancestral land for the establishment of a luxury game reserve by Otterlo Business Corporation (OBC) for the royals ruling the United Arab Emirates. As of 18 June 2022, approximately 30 Maasai people had been injured and at least one killed, at the hands of the Tanzanian government Field Force Unit (FFU) while protesting the government’s plans of what it claims are delimiting a 1500 sq km of land as a game reserve, an act which violates a 2018 East African Court of Justice (EACJ) injunction on the land dispute, per local activists. By reclassifying the area as a game reserve, the authorities aimed to systematically expropriate Maasai settlements and grazing in the area, experts warned.[110]

This was not the first time Maasai territory was encroached upon. Big-game hunting firms along with the government have long attacked the groups. The 2022 attacks are the latest escalation, which has left more than 150,000 Maasai displaced from the Loliondo and Ngorongoro areas as per the United Nations. A hunting concession already situated in Loliondo is owned by OBC, a company that has been allegedly linked to the significantly wealthy Emirati royal family as per Tanzanian lawyers, environmentalists as well as human rights activists. Anuradha Mittal, the executive director of the environmental think-tank, Oakland Institute cited that OBC was not a "safari company for just everyone, it has operations for the royal family".[111]

A 2019 United Nations report described OBC as a luxury-game hunting company "based in the United Arab Emirates" that was granted a hunting license by the Tanzanian government in 1992 permitting "the UAE royal family to organise private hunting trips" in addition to denying the Maasai people access to their ancestral land and water for herding cattle.[112]

When approached, the UAE government refrained from giving any statements. Meanwhile, the OBC commented on the matter without addressing alleged links with Emirati royals, stating that "there is no eviction in Loliondo" and calling it a "reserve land protected area" owned by the government.[111]

Notable Maasai

[edit]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b "2019 Kenya Population and Housing Census Volume IV: Distribution of Population by Socio-Economic Characteristics". Kenya National Bureau of Statistics. Archived from the original on 5 June 2020. Retrieved 24 March 2020.
  2. ^ Ethnologue report for language code:mas Archived 2008-10-23 at the Wayback Machine ethnologue.com, '453,000 in Kenya (1994 I. Larsen BTL) ... 430,000 in Tanzania (1993)', Gordon, Raymond G., Jr. (ed.), 2005. Shai Amelie has Languages of the World, Fifteenth edition. Dallas, Tex.: SIL International
  3. ^ "Lexicon". Darkwing.uoregon.edu. Archived from the original on 30 June 2020. Retrieved 30 June 2020.
  4. ^ "Maasai". Collins English Dictionary. Archived from the original on 8 August 2022. Retrieved 9 December 2019.
  5. ^ a b Maasai - Introduction Archived 2008-07-04 at the Wayback Machine Jens Fincke, 2000–2003
  6. ^ Berntsen, John L. (Autumn 1976). "The Maasai and Their Neighbors: Variables of Interaction". African Economic History (2): 1–11. doi:10.2307/3601509. JSTOR 3601509. Archived from the original on 4 June 2021. Retrieved 20 September 2021.
  7. ^ "The Maasai People". Maasai Association. Archived from the original on 18 May 2020. Retrieved 27 June 2022.
  8. ^ "Kenya - Population Distribution". kenya.rcbowen.com. Archived from the original on 15 November 2012. Retrieved 25 August 2007.
  9. ^ Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, p. 122.
  10. ^ a b A. Okoth & A. Ndaloh, Peak Revision K.C.P.E. Social Studies, East African, p.60–61.
  11. ^ Collins, Robert O. (2006). The southern Sudan in historical perspective. Transaction Publishers. pp. 9–10.
  12. ^ S. Wandibba et al., p.19–20.
  13. ^ a b c "Maasai People". THIRTEEN. New York: PBS. 2001. Retrieved 13 March 2023.
  14. ^ International Labour Office (2000). Traditional occupations of indigenous and tribal peoples: emerging trends. International Labour Organization. p. 55.
  15. ^ Briggs, Phillip (2006). Northern Tanzania with Kilimanjaro and Zanzibar. Bradt Travel Guides. p. 200. ISBN 1-84162-146-3.
  16. ^ Falola, Toyin; Jennings, Christian (2003). Sources and Methods in African History: Spoken, Written, Unearthed. Boydell & Brewer. pp. 2, 18. ISBN 9781580461344. Archived from the original on 1 January 2016. Retrieved 28 February 2012 – via Google Books.
  17. ^ "Ecology Books and Journals". Blackwell Publishing. Archived from the original on 3 October 2012. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  18. ^ "Rinderpest". Ntz.info. 14 February 1997. Archived from the original on 20 May 2021. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  19. ^ Faris, Stephan (19 September 2004). "The Land Is Ours". Time. Archived from the original on 16 May 2007.
  20. ^ Kitumusote. "History of the Maasai". Kitumusote. Archived from the original on 29 April 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  21. ^ Adams, Jonathan S.; McShane, Thomas O. (1996). The Myth of Wild Africa: Conservation Without Illusion. University of California Press. p. 44. ISBN 0-520-20671-1. Archived from the original on 14 November 2020. Retrieved 1 November 2020.
  22. ^ "Tarangire National Park". 14 August 2007. Archived from the original on 14 August 2007. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  23. ^ Singo, Leiyo (3 August 2022). "When Maasaiphobia Became Policy". The Republic. Retrieved 7 June 2023.
  24. ^ Pavitt, Nigel (2001). Africa's Great Rift Valley. New York: Harry N. Abrams Incorporated. p. 122. ISBN 0-8109-0602-3.
  25. ^ "archived copy of laleyio.com". 27 May 2008. Archived from the original on 12 February 2009. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  26. ^ "The Maasai Tribe - Maasai History And Culture - Kenya Travel Guide". www.siyabona.com. Archived from the original on 22 September 2019. Retrieved 24 May 2020.
  27. ^ a b Tishkoff, Sarah A.; Reed, Floyd A.; Friedlaender, Françoise R.; Ehret, Christopher; Ranciaro, Alessia; Froment, Alain; Hirbo, Jibril B.; Awomoyi, Agnes A.; Bodo, Jean-Marie; Doumbo, Ogobara; Ibrahim, Muntaser; Juma, Abdalla T.; Kotze, Maritha J.; Lema, Godfrey; Moore, Jason H.; Mortensen, Holly; Nyambo, Thomas B.; Omar, Sabah A.; Powell, Kweli; Pretorius, Gideon S.; Smith, Michael W.; Thera, Mahamadou A.; Wambebe, Charles; Weber, James L.; Williams, Scott M. (2009). "The Genetic Structure and History of Africans and African Americans". Science. 324 (5930): 1035–44. Bibcode:2009Sci...324.1035T. doi:10.1126/science.1172257. PMC 2947357. PMID 19407144. Also see Supplementary Data Archived 2009-06-01 at the Wayback Machine.
  28. ^ Dobon, Begoña; Hassan, Hisham Y.; Laayouni, Hafid; Luisi, Pierre; Ricaño-Ponce, Isis; Zhernakova, Alexandra; Wijmenga, Cisca; Tahir, Hanan; Comas, David; Netea, Mihai G.; Bertranpetit, Jaume (28 May 2015). "The genetics of East African populations: a Nilo-Saharan component in the African genetic landscape". Scientific Reports. 5 (1): 9996. Bibcode:2015NatSR...5E9996D. doi:10.1038/srep09996. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4446898. PMID 26017457.
  29. ^ Pickrell, Joseph K.; Patterson, Nick; Loh, Po-Ru; Lipson, Mark; Berger, Bonnie; Stoneking, Mark; Pakendorf, Brigitte; Reich, David (18 February 2014). "Ancient west Eurasian ancestry in southern and eastern Africa". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 111 (7): 2632–2637. Bibcode:2014PNAS..111.2632P. doi:10.1073/pnas.1313787111. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 3932865. PMID 24550290.
  30. ^ Prendergast, Mary E.; Lipson, Mark; Sawchuk, Elizabeth A.; Olalde, Iñigo; Ogola, Christine A.; Rohland, Nadin; Sirak, Kendra A.; Adamski, Nicole; Bernardos, Rebecca; Broomandkhoshbacht, Nasreen; Callan, Kimberly; Culleton, Brendan J.; Eccles, Laurie; Harper, Thomas K.; Lawson, Ann Marie (5 July 2019). "Ancient DNA Reveals a Multi-Step Spread of the First Herders into Sub-Saharan Africa". Science. 365 (6448): eaaw6275. Bibcode:2019Sci...365.6275P. doi:10.1126/science.aaw6275. ISSN 0036-8075. PMC 6827346. PMID 31147405.
  31. ^ a b c Wood, Elizabeth T.; Stover, Daryn A.; Ehret, Christopher; Destro-Bisol, Giovanni; Spedini, Gabriella; McLeod, Howard; Louie, Leslie; Bamshad, Mike; Strassmann, Beverly I.; Soodyall, Himla; Hammer, Michael F. (2005). "Contrasting patterns of Y chromosome and mtDNA variation in Africa: evidence for sex-biased demographic processes" (PDF). European Journal of Human Genetics. 13 (7): 867–876. doi:10.1038/sj.ejhg.5201408. PMID 15856073. S2CID 20279122. Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 December 2010. (cf. Appendix A: Y Chromosome Haplotype Frequencies)
  32. ^ Cruciani; et al. (May 2004). "Phylogeographic Analysis of Haplogroup E3b (E-M215) Y Chromosomes Reveals Multiple Migratory Events Within and Out Of Africa". American Journal of Human Genetics. 74 (5): 1014–1022. doi:10.1086/386294. PMC 1181964. PMID 15042509. Archived from the original on 12 January 2013.
  33. ^ "The phylogenetic tree based on SNP data – Y-DNA haplogroup E-V22". Archived from the original on 16 February 2020. Retrieved 30 January 2020.
  34. ^ a b Hassan (2008). "Y-chromosome variation among Sudanese: restricted gene flow, concordance with language, geography, and history". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 137 (3): 316–23. doi:10.1002/ajpa.20876. PMID 18618658.
  35. ^ Castrì, Loredana; Garagnani, Paolo; Useli, Antonella; Pettener, Davide; Luiselli, Donata (2008). "Kenyan crossroads: migration and gene flow in six ethnic groups from Eastern Africa" (PDF). Journal of Anthropological Science. 86: 189–92. PMID 19934476. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 March 2012. Retrieved 29 December 2010.
  36. ^ Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, pp. 53, 54.
  37. ^ "African water symbolism and its consequences". Institut.veolia.org. Archived from the original on 10 October 2007. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  38. ^ "Maasai"_Tepilit Ole Saitoti 1980 Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, New York ISBN 978-0-8109-8099-0, 1990 edition.
  39. ^ Vries, Manfred F. R. Kets de (17 June 2014). Talking to the Shaman Within: Musings on Hunting. iUniverse. ISBN 9781491731512. Archived from the original on 22 January 2022. Retrieved 1 November 2020.
  40. ^ "Society-MASAI". Archived from the original on 4 May 1997. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  41. ^ "Kenyan Tribes & Religions | Travel to Africa". www.shadowsofafrica.com. Archived from the original on 23 December 2017. Retrieved 22 December 2017.
  42. ^ a b Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, p. 169.
  43. ^ Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, p. 103.
  44. ^ Cultural and Public Attitudes: Improving the Relationship between Humans and Hyaenas from Mills, M.g.L. and Hofer, H. (compilers). (1998) Hyaenas: Status Survey and Conservation Action Plan. IUCN/SSC Hyaena Specialist Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. vi + 154 pp.
  45. ^ The Lions of Tsavo: Exploring the Legacy of Africa's Notorious Man-eaters By Bruce D. Patterson. 2004. McGraw-Hill Professional. Page 93. ISBN 0-07-136333-5
  46. ^ "Savanna: Folklore". THIRTEEN. New York: PBS. 2001. Retrieved 13 March 2023.
  47. ^ Northern Tanzania with Kilimanjaro and Zanzibar by Phillip Briggs (2006), page 200. ISBN 1-84162-146-3
  48. ^ Africa's Great Rift Valley. Nigel Pavitt. 2001. pages 138. Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, New York ISBN 0-8109-0602-3
  49. ^ Nelson, Jimmy. The Maasai Tribe. Beforethey.com
  50. ^ "Maasai Association". Maasai Association. Archived from the original on 18 June 2012. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  51. ^ "Lion Killing in the Amboseli-Tsavo Ecosystem, 2001–2006, and its Implications for Kenya's Lion Population" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 February 2009.
  52. ^ Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, pp. 86–87.
  53. ^ Spencer, P. (1988) The Maasai of Matapato: a study of rituals of rebellion Manchester University Press, Manchester. Spencer, P. (2003) Time, Space, and the Unknown: Maasai configurations of power and providence. Routledge, London.
  54. ^ The Myth of Wild Africa: Conservation Without Illusion Archived 2021-05-20 at the Wayback Machine. Jonathan S. Adams, Thomas O. McShane. 1996. University of California Press. page = 42. ISBN 0-520-20671-1
  55. ^ Culture and Customs of Kenya Archived 2021-05-20 at the Wayback Machine. Neal Sobania. 2003. Greenwood Press. page 91. ISBN 0-313-31486-1
  56. ^ Hassanali J, Amwayi P, Muriithi A (April 1995). "Removal of deciduous canine tooth buds in Kenyan rural Maasai". East Afr Med J. 72 (4): 207–9. PMID 7621751.
  57. ^ Hiza JF, Kikwilu EN (April 1992). "Missing primary teeth due to tooth bud extraction in a remote village in Tanzania". Int J Paediatr Dent. 2 (1): 31–4. doi:10.1111/j.1365-263x.1992.tb00005.x. PMID 1525129.
  58. ^ "English - Maa". Darkwing.uoregon.edu. Archived from the original on 1 September 2017. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  59. ^ Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, pp. 55, 94.
  60. ^ "Maasai Association". Maasai Association. Archived from the original on 27 October 2019. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  61. ^ Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, pp. 83, 100–103.
  62. ^ Northern Tanzania - The Bradt Safari Guide by Phillip Briggs (2006). British Library. ISBN 1-84162-146-3
  63. ^ "Maasai Association". Maasai Association. Archived from the original on 27 October 2019. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  64. ^ "Maasai Ritual of Female Circumcision: Genital Cutting Practiced throughout Africa and Middle East". Orato.com. Archived from the original on 7 August 2011. Retrieved 5 May 2012.
  65. ^ "In-depth: Razor's Edge - The Controversy of Female Genital Mutilation". IRIN Humanitarian News and Analysis, UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. March 2005. Archived from the original on 18 April 2012. Retrieved 5 May 2012.
  66. ^ Shell-Duncan, Bettina; Hernlund, Ylva; Wander, Katherine; Moreau, Amadou (1 December 2013). "Legislating Change? Responses to Criminalizing Female Genital Cutting in Senegal". Law & Society Review. 47 (4): 803–835. doi:10.1111/lasr.12044. ISSN 0023-9216. PMC 3997264. PMID 24771947.
  67. ^ Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, pp. 168–173.
  68. ^ Gilbert, Elizabeth L. (2003). Broken Spears - a Maasai Journey. Atlantic Monthly Press. p. 136. ISBN 0-87113-840-9.
  69. ^ Tribal Odyssey - Maasai: The Last Dance Of The Warriors (Motion picture). National Geographic. 2005.
  70. ^ Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, pp. 55, 88.
  71. ^ "Maasai People, Kenya". Maasai-association.org. Archived from the original on 18 May 2020. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  72. ^ Gilbert, Elizabeth L. (2003). Broken Spears - a Maasai Journey. Atlantic Monthly Press. p. 82. ISBN 0-87113-840-9.
  73. ^ Ryan, Michael (1993). "The Demographic Crisis". Social Trends in Contemporary Russia. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 46–62. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-22858-4_4. ISBN 978-1-349-22860-7.
  74. ^ Maasai. Tepilit Ole Saitoti with photos by Carol Beckwith. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. 1980. page 79. ISBN 0-8109-8099-1
  75. ^ Maasai. Tepilit Ole Saitoti with photos by Carol Beckwith. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. 1980. pages 126, 129. ISBN 0-8109-8099-1
  76. ^ Maasai. Tepilit Ole Saitoti with photos by Carol Beckwith. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. 1980. page 171. ISBN 0-8109-8099-1
  77. ^ Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, p. 168.
  78. ^ "ilMurran" (in Finnish). ilMurran. 4 December 1999. Archived from the original on 28 April 2007. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  79. ^ "Maasai Music (archived copy)". 27 May 2008. Archived from the original on 4 November 2011. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  80. ^ Joseph Jordania. Why do People Sing? Music in Human Evolution. Logos. Pg 17
  81. ^ "Homophonic". Music.vt.edu. 17 November 2011. Archived from the original on 27 October 2014. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  82. ^ "What is monophony, polyphony, homophony, monody etc.?". Medieval.org. Archived from the original on 20 May 2021. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  83. ^ Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, pp. 12, 43, 85, 100.
  84. ^ "Song Structure of Maasai Music (archived copy)". 27 May 2008. Archived from the original on 26 February 2005. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  85. ^ Maasai. Tepilit Ole Saitoti with photos by Carol Beckwith. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. 1980. pages 194. ISBN 0-8109-8099-1
  86. ^ "Maa - Categories". Darkwing.uoregon.edu. Archived from the original on 28 June 2011. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  87. ^ "Archived copy of laleyio.com". 27 May 2008. Archived from the original on 2 August 2011. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  88. ^ Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, pp. 43–45, 100, 107.
  89. ^ "The technology of traditional milk products in developing countries". Fao.org. Archived from the original on 27 February 2012. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  90. ^ Suttie, J.M. "Livestock as food for pastoralists in Africa". Archived from the original on 11 March 2009.
  91. ^ Bekure, Solomon; Leeuw, P. N. de; Grandin, B. E.; Neate, P. J. H., eds. (1991). "Maasai herding: An analysis of the livestock production system of Maasai pastoralists in eastern Kajiado District, Kenya" (PDF). International Livestock Centre for Africa. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 July 2021. Retrieved 2 February 2020 – via CGSpace.
  92. ^ Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, p. 87.
  93. ^ "Ethnobotany of the Loita Maasai: towards community management of the Forest of the Lost Child; experiences from the Loita Ethnobotany Project; People and plants working paper; Vol.:8; 2001" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 7 June 2012. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  94. ^ Amin, Willetts & Eames 1987, p. 90.
  95. ^ "maasai-association.org".
  96. ^ Ryan, Kathleen (2000). "Edible Wild Plants as Digestive Aids" (PDF). Ethnoarchaeology in Maasailand. 42 (3): 2 – via Science & Archaeology.
  97. ^ "Maasai People, Kenya". Maasai-association.org. Archived from the original on 18 May 2020. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  98. ^ a b Kotowicz, Allison (2013). Maasai Identity in the 21st Century (MS thesis). University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee. p. 78 – via African Studies Commons.
  99. ^ "Maasai". Junior Worldmark Encyclopedia of World Cultures. 1999. Archived from the original on 8 July 2012.
  100. ^ "Maa (Maasai) Dictionary". Darkwing.uoregon.edu. Archived from the original on 28 June 2011. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  101. ^ "Kanga history". Glcom.com. Archived from the original on 17 February 2012. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  102. ^ "East Africa Living Encyclopedia". Africa.upenn.edu. Archived from the original on 22 October 2019. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  103. ^ Northern Tanzania with Kilimanjaro and Zanzibar by Phillip Briggs (2006), page 216. ISBN 1-84162-146-3
  104. ^ "Klumpp 1987, 105, 30, 31, 67". Smithsonianeducation.org. Archived from the original on 15 July 2007. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  105. ^ a b McCabe, Terrence. (2003). "Sustainability and livelihood diversification among the Maasai of Northern Tanzania". Human Organization. Vol 62.2. pp. 100–111.
  106. ^ Goodman, Ric. (2002). "Pastoral livelihoods in Tanzania: Can the Maasai benefit from conservation?" Current Issues in Tourism. Vol 5.3,4. P.280–286.
  107. ^ Siyabona Africa. "The Maasai Tribe, East Africa". Siyabona Africa. Archived from the original on 22 September 2019. Retrieved 20 April 2018.
  108. ^ "Challenges To Traditional Livelihoods And Newly Emerging Employment Patterns Of Pastoralists In Tanzania" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 September 2011. Retrieved 28 February 2012.
  109. ^ D. Sendalo (April 2009). A Review of Land Tenure Policy Implication on Pastoralism in Tanzania (PDF) (Report). Department of Livestock Research, Training and Extension, Ministry of Livestock Development and Fisheries. p. 16. Archived (PDF) from the original on 17 February 2022. Retrieved 17 February 2022.
  110. ^ "Maasai protesters shot, beaten as Tanzania moves forward with wildlife game reserve". Mongabay Environmental News. 14 June 2022. Archived from the original on 10 July 2022. Retrieved 29 July 2022.
  111. ^ a b "Tanzanian Maasai battle eviction from ancestral land". Financial Times. 18 June 2022. Archived from the original on 18 June 2022. Retrieved 18 June 2022.
  112. ^ "Mandates of the Special Rapporteur on the issue of human rights obligations relating to the enjoyment of a safe, clean, healthy and sustainable environment; the Special Rapporteur on the right of everyone to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of physical and mental health; the Special Rapporteur on the rights of indigenous peoples; and the Special Rapporteur on the human rights of internally displaced persons". OHCHR. Archived from the original on 9 June 2022. Retrieved 11 October 2019.
  113. ^ "Newest 'Kids' in Tanzania's Political Block". The Citizen. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. 15 April 2021. Archived from the original on 31 January 2024. Retrieved 31 January 2024.

Bibliography

[edit]
  • Amin, Mohamed; Willetts, Duncan; Eames, John (1987). The Last of the Maasai. Camerapix Publishers International. ISBN 1-874041-32-6.
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Maasai.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maasai_people&oldid=1258672691"