Magnetic field of Mars
The magnetic field of Mars is the magnetic field generated from Mars's interior. Today, Mars does not have a global magnetic field. However, Mars did power an early dynamo that produced a strong magnetic field 4 billion years ago, comparable to Earth's present surface field. After the early dynamo ceased, a weak late dynamo was reactivated (or persisted up to) ~3.8 billion years ago. The distribution of Martian crustal magnetism is similar to the Martian dichotomy. Whereas the Martian northern lowlands are largely unmagnetized, the southern hemisphere possesses strong remanent magnetization, showing alternating stripes. Scientific understanding of the evolution of the magnetic field of Mars is based on the combination of satellite measurements and Martian ground-based magnetic data.
Crustal magnetism
[edit]Satellite data
[edit]
The reconstruction of the Martian global crustal magnetism is mainly based on magnetic field measurements from the Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) magnetic field experiment/electron reflectometer (MAG/ER) and Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) magnetic-field data. However, these satellites are located at altitudes of 90–6000 km and have spatial resolutions of ≥160 km,[1] so the measured magnetization cannot observe crustal magnetic fields at shorter length scales.[2]
Mars currently does not sustain an active dynamo based on the Mars Global Surveyor (MGS) and Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution (MAVEN) magnetic field measurements. The satellite data show that the older (~4.2–4.3 billion years, Ga) southern-hemisphere crust records strong remanent magnetization (~22 nT), but the younger northern lowlands have a much weaker or zero remanent magnetization.[3] The large basins formed during the Late Heavy Bombardment (LHB) (~ 4.1–3.9 Ga) (e.g., Argyre, Hellas, and Isidis) and volcanic provinces (e.g., Elysium, Olympus Mons, Tharsis Montes, and Alba Patera) lack magnetic signatures, but the younger Noachian and Hesperian volcanoes (e.g., Tyrrhenus Mons and Syrtis Major) have crustal remanence.[4]
Mars lander observation
[edit]The Interior Exploration using Seismic Investigations, Geodesy and Heat Transport (InSight) mission measured the crustal field at the Insight landing site located in Elysium Planitia to be ~2 μT.[2] This detailed ground-level data is an order of magnitude higher than satellite-based estimates of ~200 nT at the InSight landing site. The source of this high magnetization is suggested to be Noachian basement (~3.9 Ga) beneath the Early Amazonian and Hesperian flows (~3.6 and 1.5 Ga).[2]
Paleomagnetism
[edit]Paleomagnetic evidence
[edit]Martian meteorites enable estimates of Mars's paleofield based on the thermal remanent magnetization (or TRM) (i.e., the remanent magnetization acquired when the meteorite cooled below the Curie temperature in the presence of the ambient magnetic field). The thermal remanent magnetization of carbonates in meteorite ALH84001[5] revealed that the early (4.1–3.9 Ga) Martian magnetic field was ~50 μT, much higher than the modern field, suggesting that a Martian dynamo was present until at least this time. Younger (~1.4 Ga) Martian Nakhlite meteorite Miller Range (MIL) 03346 recorded a paleofield of only ~5 μT.[6][7] However, given the possible source locations of the Nakhlite meteorite, this paleointensity still suggests that the surface magnetization is stronger than the magnetic fields estimated from satellite measurements.[7] The ~5 μT paleofield of this meteorite can be explained either by a late active dynamo[6][7] or the field generated from lava flows emplaced in the absence of a late Martian dynamo.[7]
Martian meteorites as paleomagnetic recorders
[edit]Martian meteorites contain a wide range of magnetic minerals that can record ancient remanent magnetism, including magnetite, titano-magnetite, pyrrhotite, and hematite. The magnetic mineralogy includes single domain (SD), pseudo single domain (PSD)-like, multi-domain (MD) states. However, only limited Martian meteorites are available to reconstruct the Martian paleofield due to aqueous, thermal, and shock overprints that make many Martian meteorites unsuitable for these studies.[7] Paleomagnetic studies of Martian meteorites are listed in the table below:
| Type | Crystallization Age | Shock events | Paleointensity | Sources | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Shergottites (Shergotty) | ~343 Ma | multiple shock events | 2 μT, 0.25–1 μT | shock demagnetization | [8] |
| Shergottites (Tissint) | ~600 Ma | multiple shock events | 2 μT | remagnetized by impact events | [9] |
| Nakhlite | ~1.3–1.4 Ga | - | 4 μT | late dynamo ? | [6] |
| Nakhlite | ~1.4 Ga | no significant shock event | 5 μT | old source rock or late dynamo ? | [7] |
| ALH84001 | ~4.5 Ga | ~4.0 Ga (major impact) | 50 μT | active early dynamo | [5] |
| ALH84001 | ~4.5 Ga | ~4.0 Ga (major impact) | [10] |
Martian dynamo
[edit]Timeline of Martian dynamo
[edit]The exact timing and duration of the Martian dynamo remain unknown, but there are several constraints from satellite observations and paleomagnetic studies. The strong crustal magnetization in the southern hemisphere and the paleomagnetic evidence of ALH84001 indicate that Mars sustained a strong magnetic field between ~4.2–4.3 Ga. The absence of crustal magnetic signatures in the upper lowlands and large impact basins implies dynamo termination prior to the formation of these basins (~4.0–3.9 Ga). Magnetic anomalies from two young volcanoes (e.g., Tyrrhenus Mons, Syrtis Major) may reflect the presence of a Martian magnetic field with possible magnetic reversals during the late Noachian and Hesperian period.[4]
Hemispheric magnetic dichotomy
[edit]One unresolved question is why the Martian crustal hemispheric dichotomy correlates to the magnetic dichotomy (and whether the origin of this dichotomy is an exogenic or endogenic process). One exogenic explanation is that the Borealis impact event resulted in thermal demagnetization of an initially magnetized northern hemisphere,[11] but the proposed age of this event (~4.5 Ga) is long before the Martian dynamo termination (~4.0–4.1 Ga).[11][12] An alternate model suggests that degree-1 mantle convection (i.e., a convective structure in which mantle upwelling dominates in one hemisphere but downwelling takes in the other hemisphere) can produce a single-hemisphere dynamo.[13]
Alternating stripes
[edit]One striking feature in Martian crustal magnetism is the long E–W trending alternating stripes on the southern hemisphere (Terra Cimmeria and Terra Sirenum).[14] It has been proposed that these bands are formed by plate tectonic activity similar to the alternating magnetic polarity caused by seafloor crust spreading on Earth[14] or the results of repeated dike intrusions.[15] However, careful selection of the data analysis method is required to interpret these alternating stripes.[16] Using sparse solutions (e.g., L1 regularization) of crustal-field measurements instead of smoothing solutions (e.g., L2 regularization) shows highly magnetized local patches (with the rest of the crust unmagnetized) instead of stripes.[16] These patches might be formed by localized events such as volcanism or heating by impact events,[16] which may not require continuous fields (e.g., intermittent dynamo).[11]
Dynamo mechanisms
[edit]The dynamo mechanism of Mars is poorly understood but expected to be similar to the Earth's dynamo mechanism.[17][18] Thermal convection due to the high thermal gradients in the hot, initial core was likely the primary mechanism for driving a dynamo early in Mars's history.[17][18] As the mantle and core cooled over time, inner-core crystallization (which would provide latent heat) and chemical convection may have played a major role in driving the dynamo. Following inner-core formation, light elements migrated from the inner-core boundary into the liquid outer core and drove convection by buoyancy.[18] However, even InSight lander data could not confirm the presence of Mars's solid inner core,[19] and we cannot exclude the possibility that there was no core crystallization (only thermal convection without chemical convection).[17][18] Also, the possibility that magnetic fields may have been generated by a magma ocean cannot be ruled out.[17]
It is also unclear when and by what mechanism the Martian dynamo shut down. Perhaps a change in the cooling rate of the mantle may have caused the cessation of the Martian dynamo.[17] One theory is giant impacts during the early and mid-Noachian periods stopped the dynamo by decreasing global heat flow at the core-mantle boundary.[20]
The seismic measurements from the InSight lander revealed that the Martian outer core is in a liquid state and larger than expected.[19] In one model, a partially crystallized Martian core explains the current state of Mars (i.e., lack of magnetic field despite liquid outer core), and this model predicts that the magnetic field has the potential to be reactivated in the future.[18]
| Dynamo sources | Dynamo mechanisms | Notes | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Thermal | Thermal convection | - requires high temperature, high sulfur content
- no solid inner core |
[17][18] |
| Magma ocean | - requires conductive silicate-dominated melts | [17] | |
| Thermocompositional | Chemical convection
(Top-down crystallization) |
- requires low temperature, low thermal expansivity, low sulfur content
- possible future dynamo reactivation |
[18] |
| Chemical convection
(Bottom-up crystallization or iron snow) |
- requires low temperature, high thermal expansivity, high sulfur content
- powers dynamo based on the light element partitioning coefficient |
[18] | |
| Mechanical | Impact events | - reduces global heat flow at the core mantle boundary and stops dynamo | [20] |
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ Langlais, Benoit; Thébault, Erwan; Houliez, Aymeric; Purucker, Michael E.; Lillis, Robert J. (2019). "A New Model of the Crustal Magnetic Field of Mars Using MGS and MAVEN". Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 124 (6): 1542–1569. Bibcode:2019JGRE..124.1542L. doi:10.1029/2018JE005854. ISSN 2169-9100. PMC 8793354. PMID 35096494.
- ^ a b c Johnson, Catherine L.; Mittelholz, Anna; Langlais, Benoit; Russell, Christopher T.; Ansan, Véronique; Banfield, Don; Chi, Peter J.; Fillingim, Matthew O.; Forget, Francois; Haviland, Heidi Fuqua; Golombek, Matthew (March 2020). "Crustal and time-varying magnetic fields at the InSight landing site on Mars". Nature Geoscience. 13 (3): 199–204. Bibcode:2020NatGe..13..199J. doi:10.1038/s41561-020-0537-x. ISSN 1752-0908. S2CID 211265951.
- ^ Acuña, M. H.; Connerney, J. E. P.; F, N.; Ness; Lin, R. P.; Mitchell, D.; Carlson, C. W.; McFadden, J.; Anderson, K. A.; Rème, H.; Mazelle, C. (1999-04-30). "Global Distribution of Crustal Magnetization Discovered by the Mars Global Surveyor MAG/ER Experiment". Science. 284 (5415): 790–793. Bibcode:1999Sci...284..790A. doi:10.1126/science.284.5415.790. PMID 10221908.
- ^ a b Milbury, C.; Schubert, G.; Raymond, C. A.; Smrekar, S. E.; Langlais, B. (2012). "The history of Mars's dynamo as revealed by modeling magnetic anomalies near Tyrrhenus Mons and Syrtis Major". Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 117 (E10). Bibcode:2012JGRE..11710007M. doi:10.1029/2012JE004099. ISSN 2156-2202.
- ^ a b Weiss, Benjamin P.; Vali, Hojatollah; Baudenbacher, Franz J.; Kirschvink, Joseph L.; Stewart, Sarah T.; Shuster, David L. (2002-08-15). "Records of an ancient Martian magnetic field in ALH84001". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 201 (3): 449–463. Bibcode:2002E&PSL.201..449W. doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(02)00728-8. ISSN 0012-821X.
- ^ a b c Shaw, John; Hill, Mimi J; Openshaw, Steven J (2001-08-15). "Investigating the ancient Martian magnetic field using microwaves". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 190 (3): 103–109. Bibcode:2001E&PSL.190..103S. doi:10.1016/S0012-821X(01)00381-8. ISSN 0012-821X.
- ^ a b c d e f Volk, Michael W. R.; Fu, Roger R.; Mittelholz, Anna; Day, James M. D. (2021). "Paleointensity and Rock Magnetism of Martian Nakhlite Meteorite Miller Range 03346: Evidence for Intense Small-Scale Crustal Magnetization on Mars". Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 126 (5): e2021JE006856. Bibcode:2021JGRE..12606856V. doi:10.1029/2021JE006856. ISSN 2169-9100. S2CID 236613272.
- ^ Cisowski, S. M (1986-06-01). "Magnetic studies on Shergotty and other SNC meteorites". Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta. 50 (6): 1043–1048. Bibcode:1986GeCoA..50.1043C. doi:10.1016/0016-7037(86)90386-8. ISSN 0016-7037.
- ^ Gattacceca, Jérôme; Hewins, Roger H.; Lorand, Jean-Pierre; Rochette, Pierre; Lagroix, France; Cournède, Cécile; Uehara, Minoru; Pont, Sylvain; Sautter, Violaine; Scorzelli, Rosa B.; Hombourger, Chrystel (2013). "Opaque minerals, magnetic properties, and paleomagnetism of the Tissint Martian meteorite". Meteoritics & Planetary Science. 48 (10): 1919–1936. Bibcode:2013M&PS...48.1919G. doi:10.1111/maps.12172. ISSN 1945-5100. S2CID 6599459.
- ^ Antretter, Maria; Fuller, Mike; Scott, Edward; Jackson, Mike; Moskowitz, Bruce; Solheid, Peter (2003). "Paleomagnetic record of Martian meteorite ALH84001". Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 108 (E6): 5049. Bibcode:2003JGRE..108.5049A. doi:10.1029/2002JE001979. ISSN 2156-2202.
- ^ a b c Tikoo, Sonia M.; Evans, Alexander J. (2022-05-30). "Dynamos in the Inner Solar System". Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences. 50 (1): annurev–earth–032320-102418. Bibcode:2022AREPS..50...99T. doi:10.1146/annurev-earth-032320-102418. ISSN 0084-6597. S2CID 245082591.
- ^ Bottke, William F.; Andrews-Hanna, Jeffrey C. (May 2017). "A post-accretionary lull in large impacts on early Mars". Nature Geoscience. 10 (5): 344–348. Bibcode:2017NatGe..10..344B. doi:10.1038/ngeo2937. ISSN 1752-0908.
- ^ Stanley, Sabine; Elkins-Tanton, Linda; Zuber, Maria T.; Parmentier, E. Marc (2008-09-26). "Mars' Paleomagnetic Field as the Result of a Single-Hemisphere Dynamo". Science. 321 (5897): 1822–1825. Bibcode:2008Sci...321.1822S. doi:10.1126/science.1161119. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 18818355. S2CID 206514329.
- ^ a b Connerney, J. E. P.; Acuña, M. H.; Ness, N. F.; Kletetschka, G.; Mitchell, D. L.; Lin, R. P.; Reme, H. (2005-10-18). "Tectonic implications of Mars crustal magnetism". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 102 (42): 14970–14975. Bibcode:2005PNAS..10214970C. doi:10.1073/pnas.0507469102. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 1250232. PMID 16217034.
- ^ Nimmo, Francis (2000-05-01). "Dike intrusion as a possible cause of linear Martian magnetic anomalies". Geology. 28 (5): 391–394. Bibcode:2000Geo....28..391N. doi:10.1130/0091-7613(2000)28<391:DIAAPC>2.0.CO;2. ISSN 0091-7613.
- ^ a b c Moore, Kimberly M.; Bloxham, Jeremy (2017). "The construction of sparse models of Mars's crustal magnetic field". Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 122 (7): 1443–1457. Bibcode:2017JGRE..122.1443M. doi:10.1002/2016JE005238. ISSN 2169-9100. S2CID 125144097.
- ^ a b c d e f g Stevenson, David J. (July 2001). "Mars' core and magnetism". Nature. 412 (6843): 214–219. Bibcode:2001Natur.412..214S. doi:10.1038/35084155. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 11449282. S2CID 4391025.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Hemingway, Douglas J.; Driscoll, Peter E. (2021). "History and Future of the Martian Dynamo and Implications of a Hypothetical Solid Inner Core". Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 126 (4): e2020JE006663. Bibcode:2021JGRE..12606663H. doi:10.1029/2020JE006663. ISSN 2169-9100. S2CID 233738133.
- ^ a b Cottaar, Sanne; Koelemeijer, Paula (2021-07-23). "The interior of Mars revealed". Science. 373 (6553): 388–389. Bibcode:2021Sci...373..388C. doi:10.1126/science.abj8914. PMID 34437103. S2CID 236179559.
- ^ a b Roberts, J. H.; Lillis, R. J.; Manga, M. (2009). "Giant impacts on early Mars and the cessation of the Martian dynamo". Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 114 (E4). Bibcode:2009JGRE..114.4009R. doi:10.1029/2008JE003287. ISSN 2156-2202.