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Mycoplasma hominis

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Mycoplasma hominis
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Mycoplasmatota
Class: Mollicutes
Order: Mycoplasmatales
Family: Mycoplasmataceae
Genus: Mycoplasma
Species:
M. hominis
Binomial name
Mycoplasma hominis
(Freundt 1953) Edward 1955

Mycoplasma hominis is a species of bacteria in the genus Mycoplasma. M. hominis has the ability to penetrate the interior of human cells.[1] Along with ureaplasmas, mycoplasmas are the smallest free-living organisms known.

They have no cell wall and therefore do not Gram stain.[2]

Mycoplasma hominis is associated with pelvic inflammatory disease[3][4] and bacterial vaginosis.[5] It is also associated with male infertility.[6] This species causes a sexually transmitted infection.[7] It is susceptible to the antibiotic clindamycin.[8]

Growth of "fried egg" colonies on glucose agar medium within 24–48 hours is a characteristic of Mycoplasma hominis.[citation needed]

This pathogen may latently infect the chorionic villi tissues of pregnant women, thereby impacting pregnancy outcome.[9]

Biology and biochemistry

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Type and morphology

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Mycoplasma hominis is an opportunistic human mycoplasma species residing in the lower urogenital tract.[10] It is a common human urogenital Mycoplasma species that lacks a cell wall. Due to the absence of the cell wall, M. hominis is innately resistant to β-lactams and to all antibiotics which target the cell wall.[11] Additionally, it is the simplest self-replicating microorganism known.[12] This reaps consequences such as a lack of detection by light microscopy, and complex nutritional requirements.[11] Due to the fact that it does not have a cell wall, Mycoplasma hominis does not gram stain[2] although it is surprisingly often described as gram-negative.

The morphology is quite variable and seems to depend, in part, on the age of the culture as the smallest form observed, coming from the elementary body, is 80nm to 100nm wide in diameter.[13] Different cell forms have been observed varying from coccoid cells to filaments and irregularly shaped structures with coccoid forms and ring- or disc-shaped cells reigning predominant.[14] Coccal forms of the species are associated with binary fission while fragmentary filaments, and budding cells were also encountered.  This fact along with the fact that in different labs, the same strains grew at different rates, leads to the conclusion that cultural conditions have influenced the rate of division and cellular morphology in this species.[15]

The internal components of the much larger cells in the species are also variable. These cells can contain different structures such as ribosome-like granules, nuclear areas of netlike strands, dense cytoplasmic bodies and large vacuoles. These observations indicate multiple modes of reproduction for this organism.[13]

Metabolism

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Analysis of the M. hominis PG21 genome sequence shows that this organism is the second smallest genome among self-replicating free living organisms.[10] Due to their minimal genomes, M. hominis have reduced metabolic capabilities which are characterized by distinct energy-generating pathways.[10] Three energy pathways that M. hominis is capable of going through is Embden-Meyerhoff-Parnas (EMP), arginine dihydrolase and Riboflavin metabolism.[10]

Culture growth

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Mycoplasma hominis, a microorganism without a cell wall, is difficult to detect because it cannot be identified through Gram staining.[16] Culturing it is demanding and time-consuming due to specialized requirements and while direct DNA testing is an option, it's not always highly sensitive, and not all labs possess its capabilities.[17] This likely leads to underreporting of M. hominis infections, causing delayed diagnosis and less favorable treatment outcomes[18] Cells of M. hominis prepared from batch cultures show uniform exponential growth and appear to divide through the process of binary fission with pleomorphic forms appearing upon further incubation.[19] Similar behavior was demonstrated by another laboratory-adapted strain and by three other clinical isolates, making this seem characteristic of the species.[19] M. hominis grows in a variety of defined laboratory media, such as arginine broth and can also be cultivated in water.[20] Growth in this species, as well as all species of mycoplasmas, is driven by anaerobic respiration.[21]

Role in disease

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Site of localization

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The primary sites of localization for M. hominis is the oropharynx and the genitourinary tract with positive pathogenicity.[22] It is capable of infecting human beings as well as non-human primates.[23]

Mycoplasma hominis is more than likely implicated in many different diseases, but its role is unclear for most of them. M. hominis is implicated in pelvic inflammatory disease, which may cause ectopic pregnancy.[23] It prospers in the environment created by other gram negative bacteria implicated in bacterial vaginosis and may be a cause of preterm delivery and miscarriage. It is also implicated in postpartum fever, because it may be a cause of endometritis. M. hominis is also suspected to be the cause of neonatal infections such as conjunctivitis, respiratory distress, fever, meningitis, abscesses, and congenital pneumonia.[23] In adults, M. hominis may be implicated in pharyngitis, septicaemia, lung infections, central nervous system infections, other respiratory tract infections, joint infection, and wound infections. M. hominis infections are usually not seen in healthy adults.[23] Understanding how M. hominis contributes to infections in adult patients, particularly in areas outside the genital tract like the central nervous system (CNS), post-operative wound sites, the chest, and joints, has posed a challenge.[24] Recent data shows an increase in reported post-operative CNS infections caused by Mycoplasma, likely due to the more extensive use of advanced diagnostic methods like PCR and DNA sequencing, especially when routine cultures fail to detect bacterial growth.[25]

Incubation period

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The incubation period of M. hominis is unknown.[citation needed]

Treatment

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Many antibiotics kill bacteria by weakening the cell wall. However, mycoplasma bacteria lack this cellular structure causing some antibiotics, like penicillin, to be ineffective treatment options.[26]

Oral tetracyclines have historically been the drugs of choice for use against urogenital and systemic infections due to M. hominis.[11] In locations and patient populations where tetracycline resistance or treatment failures are common, other drugs such as fluoroquinolones should be considered guided by in vitro susceptibility data when possible.[11]

Recent epidemiologic studies demonstrate that 18% of Mycoplasma hominis are resistant to ciprofloxacin and 61% are resistant to azithromycin. Resistance to minocycline is 6%.[27]

Some infections may be treated by a single antibiotic.[11] In other cases such as severe M. hominis infections occurring in immunocompromised patients, combination of drugs usually active against the mycoplasmas have been recommended. In those cases, guidelines for optimal therapy remain to be established. Current therapeutic considerations are based only upon case reports.[11]

Prevention

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The bacterium is often passed through sex, so to help keep this infection away, safe sex practices should be used.[26]

Genome studies

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DNA sequence data is incomplete for M. hominis. M. hominis uses an atypical type of energy metabolism, dependent upon the degradation of arginine. Other mycoplasmas lack this characteristic. Determining the genome will provide information that would facilitate the understanding of metabolic reconstitutions.[28]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ "Mycoplasma hominis PG21". Site du Genoscope. 2013-10-19. Retrieved 2015-08-30.
  2. ^ a b "Gram Staining Rules". www.atsu.edu. Retrieved 2020-08-02.
  3. ^ Taylor-Robinson, D (Oct 1996). "Infections due to species of Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma: an update". Clin Infect Dis. 23 (4): 671–82. doi:10.1093/clinids/23.4.671. PMID 8909826.
  4. ^ Ljubin-Sternak, Sunčanica; Meštrović, Tomislav (2014). "Review: Chlamydia trachomatis and Genital Mycoplasmias: Pathogens with an Impact on Human Reproductive Health". Journal of Pathogens. 2014 (183167): 183167. doi:10.1155/2014/183167. PMC 4295611. PMID 25614838.
  5. ^ Mastromarino, Paola; Vitali, Beatrice; Mosca, Luciana (2013). "Bacterial vaginosis: a review on clinical trials with probiotics" (PDF). New Microbiologica. 36 (3): 229–238. PMID 23912864.
  6. ^ C. Huang; H.L. Zhu; K.R. Xu; S.Y. Wang; L.Q. Fan; W.B. Zhu (September 2015). "Mycoplasma and ureaplasma infection and male infertility: a systematic review and meta-analysis". Andrology. 3 (5): 809–816. doi:10.1111/andr.12078. PMID 26311339. S2CID 39834287.
  7. ^ Ljubin-Sternak & Meštrović 2014, p. 1.
  8. ^ "Clindamycin" (PDF). FA Davis Company. 2017. Retrieved 15 December 2017.
  9. ^ Contini C, Rotondo JC, Magagnoli F, Maritati M, Seraceni S, Graziano A, Poggi A, Capucci R, Vesce F, Tognon M, Martini F (2018). "Investigation on silent bacterial infections in specimens from pregnant women affected by spontaneous miscarriage". J Cell Physiol. 234 (1): 100–9107. doi:10.1002/jcp.26952. hdl:11392/2393176. PMID 30078192.
  10. ^ a b c d Pereyre, Sabine; Sirand-Pugnet, Pascal; Beven, Laure; Charron, Alain; Renaudin, Hélène; Barré, Aurélien; Avenaud, Philippe; Jacob, Daniel; Couloux, Arnaud; Barbe, Valérie; de Daruvar, Antoine (October 2009). "Life on arginine for Mycoplasma hominis: clues from its minimal genome and comparison with other human urogenital mycoplasmas". PLOS Genetics. 5 (10): e1000677. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000677. ISSN 1553-7404. PMC 2751442. PMID 19816563.
  11. ^ a b c d e f Pereyre, Sabine. “Mycoplasma Hominis, M. Genitalium and Ureaplasma Spp.” Mycoplasma Species (M. Hominis, M. Genitalium, M. Fermentans) - Infectious Disease and Antimicrobial Agents, 2002, www.antimicrobe.org/m06.asp.
  12. ^ Lo, Shyh-Ching; Wang, Richard Y.-H.; Grandinetti, Teresa; Zou, Nianxiang; Haley, Christine L.-D.; Hayes, Michael M.; Wear, Douglas J.; Shih, James W.-K. (2003). "Mycoplasma hominis Lipid-Associated Membrane Protein Antigens for Effective Detection ofM. Hominis–Specific Antibodies in Humans". Clinical Infectious Diseases. 36 (10): 1246–1253. doi:10.1086/374851. PMID 12746769. S2CID 9676461.
  13. ^ a b Anderson, D. R.; Barile, M. F. (July 1965). "Ultrastructure of Mycoplasma hominis". Journal of Bacteriology. 90 (1): 180–192. doi:10.1128/JB.90.1.180-192.1965. ISSN 0021-9193. PMC 315612. PMID 16562016.
  14. ^ Bredt, W. 1971. Cellular Morphology of Newly Isolated Mycoplasma hominis Strains. Journal of Bacteriology 105:1 449. http://jb.asm.org/content/105/1/449.full.pdf
  15. ^ Robertson, J & Alfa, Michelle & Boatman, E. (1983). Morphology of the cells and colonies of Mycoplasma hominis. Sexually transmitted diseases. 10. 232-9.
  16. ^ Hamburg, M. D.; Paparo, A. A.; Morris, E. (1976). "Unit activity of the cerebral and visceral ganglia of the mussel, Mytilus edulis and the coordinated control of ciliary movement". Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. C: Comparative Pharmacology. 54 (2): 89–94. doi:10.1016/0306-4492(76)90069-1. PMID 8262.
  17. ^ Kobos, R. K.; Rechnitz, G. A. (1976). "Acetylcholine-ATP binding by direct membrane electrode measurement". Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 71 (3): 762–767. doi:10.1016/0006-291x(76)90896-2. PMID 9084.
  18. ^ Chang, K.; Chiou, W. L. (1976). "Interactions between drugs and saliva-stimulating parafilm and their implications in measurements of saliva drug levels". Research Communications in Chemical Pathology and Pharmacology. 13 (2): 357–360. PMID 3832.
  19. ^ a b Robertson, J.; Gomersall, M.; Gill, P. (November 1975). "Mycoplasma hominis: growth, reproduction, and isolation of small viable cells". Journal of Bacteriology. 124 (2): 1007–1018. doi:10.1128/JB.124.2.1007-1018.1975. ISSN 0021-9193. PMC 235991. PMID 1102522.
  20. ^ Ball, H. J.; Neill, S. D.; Reid, L. R. (January 1982). "Use of arginine aminopeptidase activity in characterization of arginine-utilizing mycoplasmas". Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 15 (1): 28–34. doi:10.1128/JCM.15.1.28-34.1982. ISSN 0095-1137. PMC 272017. PMID 6764773.
  21. ^ Mayer, Gene. Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma, The MicrobeLibrary, www.microbiologybook.org/mayer/myco.htm#:~:text=The mycoplasmas are facultative anaerobes,pear shaped and even filamentous.
  22. ^ Clongen.com, www.clongen.com/mycoplasma-hominis/#:~:text=The incubation period is two,for years in hypogammaglobulinemic patients.
  23. ^ a b c d “Mycoplasma Hominis.” MSDSonline, www.msdsonline.com/resources/sds-resources/free-safety-data-sheet-index/mycoplasma-hominis/[dead link‍]
  24. ^ Hayes, J. L. (1976). "Tuning in can turn on your work force". Modern Healthcare. [Short-Term Care Ed.] 5 (6): 62. PMID 6879.
  25. ^ "Google Scholar".
  26. ^ a b Felson, Sabrina. “Mycoplasma Infections: Symptoms, Treatment, and Prevention.” WebMD, WebMD, 28 Mar. 2020, www.webmd.com/a-to-z-guides/mycoplasma-infections#1.
  27. ^ Pavoni, Matteo; Principe, Luigi; Foschi, Claudio; Meroni, Elisa; Briozzo, Elena; Lazzarotto, Tiziana; Ambretti, Simone; Di Bella, Stefano (2023-12-07). "Antimicrobial Resistance of Genital Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma : A Multicentre Study Over a 5-Year Period in Italy (2017–2021)". Microbial Drug Resistance. 30 (1): 55–60. doi:10.1089/mdr.2023.0202. ISSN 1076-6294. PMID 38060805.
  28. ^ "Mycoplasma hominis PG21". Site du Genoscope. 2013-10-19. Retrieved 2015-08-30.

Further reading

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  • Song, Tiejun; Ye, Aiqing; Xie, Xinyou; Huang, Jun; Ruan, Zhi; Kong, Yingying; Song, Jingjuan; Wang, Yue; Chen, Jianzhong; Zhang, Jun (September 2014). "Epidemiological investigation and antimicrobial susceptibility analysis of ureaplasma species and Mycoplasma hominis in outpatients with genital manifestations". Journal of Clinical Pathology. 67 (9): 817–820. doi:10.1136/jclinpath-2014-202248. PMID 24982440. S2CID 6089358.
  • Hasebe, Akira; Mu, Hong-Hua; Cole, Barry C (September 2014). "A Potential Pathogenic Factor from Mycoplasma hominisis a TLR2-Dependent, Macrophage-Activating, P50-Related Adhesin". American Journal of Reproductive Immunology. 72 (3): 285–295. doi:10.1111/aji.12279. hdl:2115/59366. PMID 24938999. S2CID 206987133.
  • Pignanelli S, Pulcrano G, Schiavone P, Iula VD, Catania MR. In vitro antimicrobial susceptibility of Mycoplasma hominis genital isolates. Indian J Dermatol Venereol Leprol. 2015 May-Jun;81(3):286-8. doi:10.4103/0378-6323.153520
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